Active Bank operations- these are operations through which banks place the resources at their disposal in order to obtain the necessary income and ensure their liquidity. Active Operations commercial bank mean the use on their own behalf of attracted and own funds for profit.

It is with the help of active operations that banks can direct the resources released in the process economic activity funds to those participants in the economic turnover who need capital, ensuring the flow of capital into the most promising sectors of the economy. There is a certain relationship between the profitability and riskiness of assets and their liquidity. The more risky an asset is, the more income it can bring to the bank (profitability serves as a payment for risk) and the lower its level of liquidity (a risky asset is more difficult to realize). The riskiest assets are usually both the most profitable and the least liquid.

According to their tasks, active operations can be divided into operations aimed at maintaining the bank's liquidity at a certain level, and operations aimed at making a profit.

The main types of active operations of the bank are:

Providing loans of various types to legal and individuals for a specified period, for a variety of purposes and under various conditions;

Investment in securities(bonds, shares, etc.) issued by the state or other legal entities, i.e. transactions with securities on its own behalf and at its own expense;

Factoring operations;

Accommodation Money in deposits and deposits in other banks.

Currently, there is no consensus among economists about classifying some operations as active or intermediary. For example, some economists refer to leasing operations as intermediary, since the bank acts as an intermediary during their implementation. Other economists believe that a leasing loan should be classified as an active operation, since it generates income, and in terms of its economic essence, it is a kind of loan.

The main type of active banking operations is lending, through which commercial banks receive about 80-90% of their total income.

Lending to individuals and legal entities is carried out on the basis of the Resolution of the Board of the National Bank of the Republic of Belarus dated December 30, 2003 No. 226 "Instruction on the procedure for providing (placement) by banks of funds in the form of a loan and their return" (as amended and supplemented), as well as on the basis of local regulations of commercial banks.

Currently, processes are taking place in the Republic of Belarus associated with an increase in interest rates on bank loans. This is due to an increase credit risks related to the unstable financial situation in the country. An increase in the refinancing rate forces banks to tie interest rates on loans to this value, since they cannot make the cost of loans cheaper than the cost of borrowed funds in order to avoid ruin. Therefore, in such a situation, banks offer customers who have previously received loans to conclude additional agreements, according to which the amount of interest payments is strictly tied to the refinancing rate.

Some banks meet the needs of clients who find themselves in a particularly difficult situation and temporarily fix the interest rate or give a deferral of loan repayment.

Factoring operations can be carried out by commercial banks seeking to universalize their functions, increase the number of clients, provide comprehensive services to existing clients and, ultimately, increase the bank's image. For such operations, banks can create specialized departments, branches or companies. Factoring is an assignment to a bank of unpaid debt claims (payment documents, bills of exchange, etc.) arising between producers and consumers in the process of selling goods and services. The factoring operation is based on the purchase by the factor of the supplier's payment documents for the shipped products, work performed and services rendered and the transfer by the supplier of the right to demand payment from the buyer.

Investments in securities. The main types of securities with which commercial banks operate are government securities. As a rule, the purchase and sale of securities is carried out by the head branches on the basis of applications submitted by branches or branches. In the practice of some banks, there is such a feature as the concentration of operations with securities exclusively at the level of the head branch. Operations with government securities on primary market are carried out taking into account the fulfillment of the minimum mandatory purchase standard established by the National Bank. Thus, at present, banks have a standard for the purchase of government short-term and long-term bonds in the amount of at least 6% of their own capital per quarter. Based on the results of transactions, commercial banks make up a portfolio of securities, in which they reflect the balances of securities on the corresponding balance sheet accounts with their detailed characteristics.

The legislation of the Republic of Belarus gives commercial banks the right to conduct active operations with other types of securities. However, this practice is rare due to the underdevelopment of the secondary securities market.

The active operations of commercial banks also include the provision of temporarily free resources in the form of interbank loans. This happens if a commercial bank has a positive correspondent account balance, i.e. temporarily free resources. Banks provide loans to each other on a contractual basis both in Belarusian rubles and in foreign currency.

In practice, the following main types of interbank loans are used:

Overdraft on correspondent accounts: the corresponding account records the amounts of debit (credit) balances on correspondent accounts of banks at the end of the business day;

Overnight loans granted to other banks for a period not exceeding one business day. This type of interbank loan is used to complete the settlements of the current day;

Funds provided (received) to other banks under REPO operations. These operations are associated with the purchase of securities from them for a certain period with the condition of their repurchase at a predetermined price.

A pledge of property can act as collateral for an interbank loan. In some cases, the bank may re-pledge the property of its customers received by it during transactions. Guarantees and guarantees of other banks, enterprises and organizations can also be used as collateral if they are secured by a highly liquid pledge of a guarantor or guarantor. Banks can provide loans to each other without appropriate security for up to 3 days only, with the consent of both parties.

The third level consists of periodic, ad hoc or unannounced reviews by management and internal audit. The latter is also responsible for studying and evaluating the effectiveness of the 1st and 2nd level management systems and, in particular, their adequacy to the nature of the risks associated with operations.

The composition and structure of the assets of individual commercial banks may vary significantly, because their formation is determined by a wide range of factors:

The active operations of banks also include:

provision of loans;

What is meant by credit intermediation? It is clear that the bank will contact those who offer money to the bank, that is, with a deposit, with those who will instead deal with loans. Transaction operations are divided into. Passive transactions are those in which the bank recognizes the interests of customers, as well as checking accounts, savings deposits, and other forms such as certificates of deposit.

There is a difference in function between a savings deposit and a checking account; A savings deposit has an investment function and therefore savings, while a checking account has a treasury function, meaning it is open to those who do a lot of incoming and outgoing transactions. With a current account, you can use a checkbook, ATM and credit card.

bank investments;

credit institution's claims on mortgages purchased on the secondary market;

claims of a credit institution under transactions of sale (purchase) of financial assets with deferred payment (delivery of financial assets);

claims of a credit institution to payers under paid letters of credit (in terms of uncovered export and import letters of credit);

REPO transactions (direct and reverse);

claims of a credit institution (lessor) against a lessee under financial lease (leasing) transactions.

Settlement transactions - these are operations to pay from the accounts of customers of their obligations to counterparties.

Cash transactions These are cash transactions.

Investment operations - these are operations for the investment by a credit institution of its funds in securities and shares of non-banking structures for the purpose of joint commercial activities.

Stock transactions - these are transactions with securities (other than investment) on the organized (exchange) and unorganized markets.

Stock transactions include:

with bills of exchange - for their purchase and protest, collection, domiciliation, acceptance, endorsement, issuance of bill orders, storage of bills, etc.;

By liquidity level active transactions are divided into transactions characterized by instant (cash transactions), current (loan and settlement transactions for up to 30 days) and long-term liquidity, as well as illiquid transactions.

By type of currency active operations are divided into operations in rubles and in foreign currency. By term short-term (for 1, 7 and 30 days; 3, 6, 9 and 12 months), long-term (over a year, up to 3 years, over 3 years) and open-ended active operations (on demand) are allocated.

According to the frequency of implementation active operations can be regular and irregular. Depending on the cash flowthere active operations are divided into related (balance sheet) and non-related cash flow on accounts (off-balance sheet).

Active operations are operations on the placement of own and borrowed funds of the bank for profit. Liquidity, profitability, and, consequently, financial security and the stability of the bank as a whole.
operations.
According to the classification of active operations in the literature, there are different points vision. Table 19 shows the opinions of some scientists about the essence of active operations.
Table 19

Author	Definition
Lavrushin I.O.56	Active operations are operations through which banks allocate the resources at their disposal to generate profits and maintain liquidity.
Zhukov E.F.57	Operations on the placement of banking resources are called active.
Balabanov I.T.58	Active operations are operations through which banks place the resources at their disposal for profit. Liquidity, profitability, and, consequently, the financial reliability and stability of the bank as a whole depend on the qualitative implementation of the active operations of the bank.
Prodchenko I. A.59	Active operations of credit institutions are purposeful actions to place (use) own and borrowed funds in order to generate income, maintain liquidity and financial stability.
Slepov V.A., Lushin S.I.60	Active operations are operations for the placement of attracted and own funds of a commercial bank for the purpose of income and creating conditions for banking operations.
Arkhipov A.I.61	Active operations of a commercial bank mean the use of borrowed funds and own income on its own behalf.
Raizberg B.L., Lozovsky L.Sh., Starobudov E.B.62	The active operations of the bank are the placement by the bank of its financial resources in order to put them into circulation.

Under the editorship of Lavrushin O.I. Banking gave. Express course: study guide. - M.: Konrus 2009, p. 126
Zhukov E.F. Management and marketing in banks. M. Banks and exchanges. UNITI, 2001.-191s.
Balabanov I.T. Banks and banking. Tutorial. S-P, M., 2003 p. 17
59I.A. Prodchenko. Money. Credit. Banks. Part 2. Training course. http://www.ecollege.ru/xbooks/xbook1 3/book/index/index.html
Ed. Lushina S.I., Slepova V.A. - Finance - M.: The Economist. 2007, p. 300
Economics: A textbook for universities (ed. Arkhipov A.I., Bolshakov A.K.) Ed. 3rd, revised, additional - M .: Prospect, 2005. p. 600
Raizberg B.A., Lozovsky L.Sh., Starodubtseva E.B. Modern Economic Dictionary ttp://economy. polbu.ru/aktivnye_operatsii_bankov.htm
In addition, there are discussions about the classification of active operations (Table 20).
Table 20. Classification of active operations.

Author	Classification of active operations
Batrakova L.G.63	Cash operations. Commercial Bank at any time and at the first request of the client is obliged to pay him in full or in part the deposits held on demand accounts. In this regard, the cash desk of the bank must always have a certain amount of cash. In addition to cash, banks must keep certain balances in their accounts with the Bank of Russia to ensure daily balancing of clearing settlements with other banks. Such accounts are used by commercial banks for settlements with treasuries for cash banknotes and coins received from them through the Bank of Russia to replenish their cash. Investments in securities. Treasury bills are bills issued by the country's treasury with a term of 91 days, issued into circulation under the guarantee of the government. Bills can be transferred from one depositor to another during the entire period of validity, while their price is calculated based on the number of days remaining until the due date, and agreed between the parties interest rate. The main part of investments of commercial banks falls on the share of government securities, as well as securities of local authorities. credit operations. This group of active operations includes: Loans on demand or with short-term advance notice of the need to repay them. Clientele loans and other accounts. This section includes the main sources of the bank's gross income. The main part of loans is used to form and replenish the working capital of borrowers, lending to enterprises, organizations, as well as housing construction, etc. Loans to individuals in relatively small amounts are intended mainly to pay for consumer goods. These types of loans are associated with a high degree of risk, so they are charged a large percentage. On average, it is allowed for customer loans to reach 50% of the balances of current, deposit, savings and other customer accounts. Others. These include shares of subsidiaries, affiliated companies and firms, the cost of bank buildings, equipment, etc.
Stoyanova	Divides active operations by sensitive assets:

63 Batrakova L.G. Economic analysis activities of a commercial bank. Edition 2, revised and supplemented: Textbook for universities - M .: Logos. 2005, 80s.

E.S.64

Issued loans to banking clients; Securities purchased by the bank and debt instruments circulating on the market; Issued interbank loans; Purchase by the bank of derivative instruments of the securities market (interest rate futures, options, swap contracts, repos, etc.).

Lavrushin O.I.65

Active operations include: lending operations, as a rule, bring the bulk of the income to banks. On a macroeconomic scale, the significance of these operations lies in the fact that, through them, banks turn temporarily inactive monetary funds into active ones, stimulating the processes of production, circulation and consumption; investment operations, in the process of their commission, the bank acts as an investor, investing resources in securities or acquiring rights for joint, economic activities; deposit operations, the purpose of active deposit operations of banks is to create current and long-term reserves of means of payment in accounts with the Central Bank (correspondent account and reserve account) and other commercial banks; other active operations, various in form, bring significant income to banks abroad. IN Russian practice their circle is still limited. Other active operations include: operations with foreign currency and precious metals, trust, agency, commodity, etc. Evaluation of the development of the bank's active operations is based on an assessment of the dynamics of the bank's total assets, their individual groups and net and gross assets. At the same time, it is important to compare data for a particular credit institution with average indicators for the entire banking sector, as well as with banks of the same group. The factors of asset growth in the banking sector and in individual credit institutions can be both macroeconomic (GDP growth; pricing and interest rate policy; real economy demand for credit resources; development of interbank financial market; increased confidence in banking system, a stable inflow of exports, etc.), and domestic (expanding the scope of lending, intensifying work in the securities market, universalization banking, capital increase, etc.). Further analysis of volumetric characteristics is to determine the ratio between net and gross assets. Gross assets include:

64Stoyanova E.S., Financial management: theory and practice textbook - 5th edition - M .: "Perspective", 2003 p. - 525
65 Edited by Lavrushin O.I. Banking gave. Express course: study guide. - M.: Konrus 2009, p.127

	non-income-generating assets: cash; correspondent accounts in other banks; FOR; fixed assets; intangible assets; debtors; funds in settlements; use of budgetary and extrabudgetary funds; capital investment financing; capital expenditures; current expenses; Future expenses; revaluation currency funds and securities; diverted funds from profit; losses of the reporting year and previous years; income-generating assets: long-term, medium-term and short-term loans to customers, banks, and the public; arrears on loans and interest; factoring; leasing; securities; issued guarantees. Net assets include: non-income-generating assets: cash; correspondent accounts in other banks; FOR; fixed assets and intangible assets at residual value; debtors in the amount of the excess of creditors; income-generating assets: long-term, medium-term and short-term loans less reserves to cover losses on loans to customers, banks and individuals in rubles and foreign currency; factoring and leasing, less the previously created provision for depreciation of the cost of these operations; securities less provisions for depreciation of securities, promissory notes, frozen liabilities. In the structure of the balance sheet, net assets are reduced by the amount of regulatory, accumulative and transit accounts. The ratio between working and non-performing assets is better determined by net assets already cleared of risk.
Bukato VI., Lviv Yu.I.66	The main active operations are: credit operations, resulting in the formation loan portfolio jar; investment operations that create the basis for the formation investment portfolio; cash and settlement operations, which are one of the main types of services provided by the bank to its customers; other active operations related to the creation of an appropriate infrastructure that ensures the successful completion of all banking operations.
Polyakov V.P., Moskovkina L.A.67	subdivide active operations into bank investments, granting loans, accounting (purchase) of commercial bills and stock operations.
I.A. Prodche 68 NCO	According to the structure and content, operations are divided into loan, investment and other

Bukato Yu.M. , V.G. Lvov. "Banks and banking operations in Russia", M., 1996, p.90
Polyakov V.P., Moskovkina L.A. Fundamentals of money management and credit. Textbook - 2nd edition - M: INFRA -M, 1997 p. 100
68I.A. Prodchenko. Money. Credit. Banks. Part 2. Training course. http://www.e-college.ru/xbooks/
book153/book/index/index.html
Up to 80% of banking assets account for accounting and loan operations and investments in securities. For banks industrial developed countries the multidirectional movement of these two types of operations is characteristic. In a favorable economic environment, the specific gravity accounting and loan operations, which bring banks the bulk of the profits, and the share of investments in securities (under normal conditions, less profitable operations) is reduced. Economic crises, inflation, business disruption reduce opportunities bank lending economy and lead, respectively, to a decrease in the number of accounting and loan operations and
growth in investments in government securities.
Below we will consider the types of active operations of the bank, the most
often reflected in the economic literature, these include:
short term and long-term lending production, social, investment and scientific activities of enterprises and organizations;
provision of consumer loans to the population;
purchase of securities;
leasing;
factoring;
innovative financing and lending;
equity participation of the bank's funds in the economic activities of enterprises;
loans to other banks.
According to the economic content, active operations are divided into:

gt;	credit
gt;	settlement
gt;	cash
gt;	investment
gt;	warranty

The basis of active operations are credit operations, because. they are the most profitable, but at the same time they are the most risky.
credit operations. Bank loan is economic relations, during which banks provide borrowers with funds with the condition of their return. These relations involve the movement of value (loan capital) from the bank (creditor) to the borrower (debtor) and vice versa. Borrowers are enterprises of all forms of ownership (joint-stock enterprises and firms, state enterprises, private entrepreneurs, etc.), as well as the population.
The return of the value received by the borrower (repayment of the debt to the bank) on the scale of one enterprise and the entire economy should be the result of reproduction on an increasing scale. It defines economic role loan and serves as one of the most important conditions for the bank to receive profit from lending operations. Debt on loans provided to the population can be repaid by reducing accumulation and even reducing consumption compared to the previous period. At the same time, lending to the population ensures the growth of consumption, stimulates an increase in demand for goods (especially expensive, durable goods) and depends on the income level of the population, which determines the possibility for banks to profit from these operations.
Credit operations occupy the largest share in the structure of banking assets.
As a result, when issuing a loan, banks require from potential borrowers a set of documents that characterize the financial security of the loan and the legal force of the borrower, these documents are:
^ Constituent documents.
Business plan, on the basis of which the possibility of repaying the loan and the payback period are determined.
A contract or a copy of it, fixing the purpose of obtaining a loan.
Balance sheet and some applications to it.
^ Credit agreements with other banks.
^ Pledge and guarantee agreement.
^ Urgent obligation - an order to repay a loan in accordance with the terms established in the loan agreement.
^ Application for a loan, indicating the amount, term and purpose of the loan
Types of credit (loan) operations are extremely diverse. They are divided into groups according to the following criteria:
Borrower type;
Method of provision;
Loan terms;
The nature of the circulation of funds;
Appointment;
Type of account being opened;
The procedure for issuing funds;
Loan repayment method;
The procedure for accrual and repayment of interest;
The degree of risk and others.
The classification of borrowers' loans and lending objects can be carried out according to a number of criteria.
According to the areas of use (objects of lending), loans are divided into targeted loans (loans to pay material assets to provide production process, loans for the implementation of trade and intermediary operations, loans for the construction and purchase of housing, loans for the formation working capital and others) and non-targeted (for example, loans for temporary needs).
According to the subjects of a credit transaction, there are:
a) depending on the type of creditor:
bank loans (provided by individual banks, associations);
loans from non-banking credit institutions (pawnshops, rental offices, mutual aid funds, credit cooperatives, building societies, pension funds and so on);
personal or private loans (provided to individuals);
loans provided to borrowers by enterprises and organizations (in the form of commercial lending or installment loans provided to the population by trade organizations and others);
b) by type of borrower:
- loans legal entities: commercial organizations(enterprises and organizations, including banks, companies, firms), non-profit, government organizations;
loans to individuals.
According to the industry, there are loans provided by banks to industrial enterprises, Agriculture, trade, transport, communication and so on.
According to the terms of lending, loans are divided into:
short-term (from one day to one year);
medium-term (with a period of one to three to five years);
long-term (for a period of more than three to five years).
According to the type of account being opened, there are one-time loans provided from separate (simple) loan accounts or lending from special loan accounts, which provide for accounting for the total debt of the client to the bank.
By security, loans are distinguished unsecured (blank) and secured (collateral, guarantees, guarantees, insurance). The collateral does not guarantee repayment of the loan, but reduces the risk, since in the event of liquidation, the bank has an advantage over other creditors in relation to any type of assets that serve as collateral for the bank loan.
According to the repayment schedule, loans repaid at a time and loans with installment payment are distinguished. Loans without installment payments have an important feature: for such loans, the repayment of debt on the loan and interest is carried out at a time.
Installment loans include:
Loans with uniform periodic loan repayments
(monthly, quarterly, etc.)
Loans with uneven periodic loan repayments
(the amount of the loan payment changes (increases or decreases) depending on certain factors, for example, as the date of the final repayment of the loan approaches or loan agreement);
Loans with uneven, non-periodic repayment. At
In case of issuance of a loan with installment payment, the principle applies, according to which the loan amount is written off in installments over the period of the agreement. A similar procedure for repaying a loan is not as burdensome for the borrower as with a lump sum payment of the debt. It is also beneficial for the bank that the loan be repaid periodically during the entire period of the agreement, as this speeds up the loan turnover and frees up credit resources for new investments, thus increasing its liquidity.
According to the method of charging interest, loans are classified as follows:
Loans with interest deducted at the time of origination
loans,
Loans that pay interest at maturity and
A loan that pays interest in equal installments over a period of
the entire period of use.
The above classification is conditional, since in banking practice it is sometimes impossible to single out one or another type of loan in “pure form” in accordance with a certain classification feature.
According to the nature of the circulation of funds, loans are divided into:
a) seasonal and non-seasonal;
b) one-time and renewable.
All credit operations are carried out by commercial banks in accordance with agreements concluded with clients.
Settlement transactions - operations for crediting and debiting funds from clients' accounts, including for payment of their obligations to counterparties. Commercial banks make settlements according to the rules, forms and standards, established by the Bank Russia, in the absence of rules for conducting certain types of settlements - by agreement among themselves, when performing international settlements - in the manner prescribed federal laws and rules accepted in international banking practice. Commercial banks, the Bank of Russia are obliged to transfer the client's funds and credit funds to his account no later than the next business day after receiving the relevant payment document. In case of untimely or incorrect crediting of funds to or debiting from a client's account, the credit institution, the Bank of Russia shall pay interest on the amount of these funds at the official interest rate of the Bank of Russia.
Cash operations. Availability of cash assets in the required amount - essential condition ensuring normal
the operation of commercial banks that use cash to change money, return deposits, meet demand for loans and cover operating expenses, including wages personnel, payment for various materials and services. The money supply depends on: the value of the bank's current liabilities; the timing of the issuance of money to customers; settlements with own personnel; business development, etc. Lack of sufficient funds can undermine the credibility of the bank. Inflation affects the amount of cash. It increases the risk of depreciation of money, so they need to be put into circulation as soon as possible, placed in profitable assets. Due to inflation, more and more cash is required. Cash transactions - transactions related to the movement of cash, with the formation, placement and use of funds on various active accounts.
The value of banking cash transactions determined by the fact that the formation of cash on hand in the economy, the ratio of funds between various assets, items, the proportion between the mass of paper, credit notes and bilon (bargaining) coins.
Investment operations - operations by a bank investing its funds in securities, shares of non-banking structures for the purpose of joint economic, financial and commercial activities, as well as those placed in the form of term deposits in other credit institutions. A feature of the investment operations of a commercial bank from credit operations is that the initiative for the first comes from the bank itself, and not its client. This investment activities the bank itself.
These operations also generate income for the bank through direct participation in the creation of profits. The economic purpose of these operations, as a rule, is associated with a long-term investment of funds directly into production.
A variation of the investment operations of banks is investing in office buildings, equipment and paying rent. These investments are made at the expense of equity bank, their purpose is to provide conditions for banking activities. These investments do not bring income to the bank.
This is the investment activity of the bank itself.
Stock transactions - transactions with securities (other than investment).
Stock transactions include:
^ operations with bills (accounting and re-discounting operations, protest operations of bills, collection, acceptance, storage, sale at auction, and others);
^ transactions with securities listed on stock exchanges.
Guarantee operations - operations for the issuance by the bank of a guarantee (surety) of payment of the client's debt to a third party upon the occurrence of certain conditions.
In addition, the active operations of banks are divided depending on:
Degrees of riskiness: risky and risk-neutral;
The nature of the placement of funds:
To primary (operations related to the placement of funds on a correspondent account, at the cash desk, with the issuance of loans to customers, other banks, other operations);
K secondary (operations related to the allocation of funds to the reserve and insurance funds);
To investment (operations on investing the bank's funds in its own portfolio of securities, in fixed assets, on participation in the economic activities of enterprises and organizations);
Yield levels:
To income-generating operations;
To transactions that do not generate income (cash transactions, according to
correspondent account, for deductions to the reserve fund of the Central Bank, issuance without interest-bearing loans).
Other operations. Other active operations, various in form, bring significant income to banks abroad. In Russian practice, their range is still limited. Other active operations include: operations with foreign currency and precious metals, trust, agency, etc.
The economic content of these operations is different. In some cases (purchase and sale of foreign currency or precious metals) there is a change in the volume or structure of assets that can be used to satisfy the claims of the bank's creditors; in others (trust operations), the bank acts as a fiduciary in relation to the property transferred to it for management; thirdly (agency operations) - the bank acts as an intermediary, performing settlement operations on behalf of its customers.

More on the topic Active banking operations.:

1. § 6. Active operations. - Three groups of active operations. - Bill transactions. - Accounting for bills. - Special current account for bills (on-call). - The economic essence of the bill of exchange transactions. - A bill of exchange and its true value. - Commodity operations - Operations with securities. - Their connection with the stock game. - Their economic entity. - Other active operations.

Commercial Bank- non-state credit institution, which carries out universal banking operations for legal entities and individuals (settlement, payment transactions taking deposits, providing loans, as well as operations in the securities market and intermediary operations).

Passive Operations commercial bank- this is the activity of the bank to accumulate its own and borrowed funds for the purpose of their placement.

These are operations for the placement of attracted and own funds of a commercial bank in order to generate income and create conditions for banking operations.

Active operations of a commercial bank- it is first of all credit operations, investment operations, operations property formation jar, settlement and cash operations, commission and intermediary(factoring, leasing, forfating, etc.).

The main types of active operations of a commercial bank are:

Providing loans to legal entities and individuals on various terms and for various periods;

Operations with securities on its own behalf and at its own expense;

Investment;

REPO transactions;

Currency dealing operations;

Non-traditional operations of commercial banks.

Credit operations - these are the operations of the creditor for the placement

free resources in various loans provided to customers on the terms of payment, urgency and repayment. Banks can place their resources on the interbank market by providing loans to other banks or opening deposit accounts with them.

Banks can buy securities (shares, bonds) of other issuers or the state in order to receive income from them due to exchange rate differences. Credit organizations they can also perform accounting transactions with bills of exchange - the purchase of bills before the due date for their payment.

Direct investments represent a direct investment of the bank's funds in production, the acquisition of real assets. Portfolio investment are carried out in the form of the purchase of securities or the provision of long-term cash loans. Banks make transactions for the purchase of securities with a mandatory subsequent sale (REPO transactions) of the same issue and in the same quantity after a period specified by the contract at a fixed price.

Foreign exchange trading operations relate to intermediary activities for the purchase and sale of currency. The task of the bank in this area is to provide its customers with the opportunity to convert their foreign currency assets from one currency to another.

Non-traditional operations of commercial banks include operations that can be performed by organizations other than commercial banks:

Settlement and cash services;

Trust (trust) operations;

Leasing operations;

Structure of banking assets. Operations on the placement of banking resources are called active. Banking assets, like liabilities, consist of capital and current items. Capital items of assets - land, buildings, owned by the bank; current - bank cash, accounting bills and others Short-term liabilities, loans and securities.

Up to 80% of banking assets account for accounting and loan operations and investments in securities. The banks of industrialized countries are characterized by multidirectional movement of these two types of operations. In a favorable economic environment, the share of accounting and lending operations, which bring the bulk of the profits to banks, increases, while the share of investments in securities (under normal conditions, less profitable operations) is reduced. Economic crises, inflation, disruptions in business activity reduce the possibilities of bank lending to the economy and lead, respectively, to a decrease in the number of accounting and loan operations and an increase in investments in government securities.

Depending on the purpose of the acquisition, investments in securities can be divided into three types. First, investments in securities purchased under REPO transactions. When buying these securities, the bank has an obligation to re-sell the securities after a certain period at a pre-fixed price. Secondly, investments in securities purchased for resale in order to receive exchange rate profits. These are securities that are kept in the bank's portfolio for less than 6 months. The third type of bank investments in securities is bank investments, the purchase of securities that are acquired in order to receive income in the form of interest and dividends, and participate in the management of the enterprise. Such securities are usually kept in the bank's portfolio for 6 months or more.

In the 80s. there is a so-called securitization of assets, i.e. converting bank claims on its borrowers into securities, usually bonds. The most common form is the issuance of bonds by the bank based on the obligations of borrowers under mortgage loan(mortgages, or mortgages). By selling bonds on the secondary market, banks refinance mortgage loans to their customers. Finally, securitization led to an expansion of off-balance sheet trading in securities.

Bank asset management. Income from accounting and loan operations, interest and dividends from investments in securities are the main sources of banking profit. However, when forming banking assets (asset management), no bank can proceed only from their profitability. The dual task of control banking assets- Ensuring sufficient profitability and at the same time reliability of the bank for its customers.

From the point of view of liquidity and profitability, four groups of banking assets can be distinguished.

The first group of banking assets - primary reserves. These are the most liquid assets that can be immediately used to pay off withdrawn deposits and satisfy loan applications. This includes: bank cash (cash balances in bank accounts in the form of banknotes and coins, sufficient for daily settlements, and funds in a correspondent account in central bank), checks and other payment documents in the process of collection, funds on correspondent accounts in other commercial banks. Such assets do not generate income, but serve as the main source of the bank's liquidity.

The second group of assets - secondary reserves. These are low income but highly liquid assets that can be turned into cash with minimal delay and negligible risk of loss. These include bills and other short-term securities, demand loans and short-term loans to prime borrowers. The main purpose of this group of assets is to serve as a source of replenishment of primary reserves.

Third - the most important part of banking assets - portfolio of bank loans. Bank loans are the most profitable, but also the most risky assets. This group of assets is the main source of the bank's profit.

The fourth group of banking assets is formed by a portfolio of securities, or a portfolio of banking investments. The formation of an investment portfolio has two goals: to bring income to the bank and to be an addition to secondary reserves as long-term securities mature and turn into short-term ones.

In world practice, there are several approaches to the management of banking assets. With one or another approach to management, the bank's management allocates resources in different ways among different groups of assets.

The "general fund of funds" method is based on the idea of ​​distributing the total amount of bank resources (general fund of funds) between different types of assets, regardless of the source of resources. For the implementation of a specific active operation in accordance with this model, it does not matter from which source the funds came: from deposits on demand or from term deposits. This approach does not take into account the different liquidity requirements for different deposits. Schematically, the method of "general fund of funds" can be illustrated as follows (see Fig. 2.3).

With another method of asset management - "banks within the bank" - the formation of assets is carried out depending not only on the total amount, but also on the structure of the attracted resources. In accordance with this method, several "liquidity-profitability centers" are determined, which are used to place funds raised from various sources. Such centers are called “banks within a bank”. In a bank, as it were, there is a “bank of demand deposits”, a “bank of time deposits”, a “bank of fixed capital” (see Fig. 2.4).


Having established the belonging of funds to different "banks" in terms of their liquidity and profitability, the bank's management determines the order of their placement from each "bank". Placement of funds from each "bank" is carried out independently of other "banks".

Since demand deposits require the highest coverage of liquid assets, a significant part of the funds from the “demand deposit bank” will be directed to primary reserves (for example, 1% more than the required reserve requirement to be held at the central bank). The remaining part of demand deposits will go mainly to secondary reserves, and only a small part - to loans, and short-term ones.

Otherwise, the funds of the “term deposit bank” will be distributed. A larger share of them will go to the formation of a secondary reserve, the provision of medium and long-term loans, and long-term securities. Regulation of bank investments is an independent area of ​​asset management.

Accounting and loan operations consist of accounting bills and loans. Accounting for a bill is a kind of purchase of a bill by a bank. When buying a bill from the bill holder, the bank buys the right to receive money on the bill at the end of the term. For the fact that the bank advances the holder of the bill, giving him money immediately, although the maturity date of the bill comes, for example, in a month, the bank charges from the bill holder who presented the bill for accounting, discount rate, or discount. The discount is equal to the difference between the amount indicated on the bill and the amount paid by the bank when discounting the bill. At the expiration of the bill of exchange, the bank presents it to the debtor for redemption (see Fig. 2.5). The meaning of this operation for the bank is to receive the discount interest, and for the holder who presented the bill for accounting, to receive money on the bill before its maturity.


Loan operations of banks can be classified according to the following criteria: by economic content and purpose, by category of borrowers, by security, by terms, methods and sources of repayment, by the form of issuing a loan.

Depending on the economic content and purpose loans are categorized as follows:
- loans for commercial purposes:

• for temporary needs to finance the current needs for working capital of industrial, commercial, agricultural enterprises;
• for capital investments, expansion and modernization of fixed capital in various industries;
• for stock speculation;

Consumer or personal loans for housing construction, purchase of consumer durables, payment for education, treatment, etc.

• joint-stock companies and private enterprises (industrial, commercial, municipal, agricultural, brokerage);
• credit and financial institutions (and especially banks);
• population;
• government and local authorities.

Bank loans can be backed by nothing(blank) or secured. A secured loan requires some form of collateral. Loans can be secured by shares and bonds, bills of exchange and documents of title (warrant - a warehouse certificate confirming the presence of goods in a warehouse; a railway bill of lading; a bill of lading - a certificate of acceptance of cargo for sea transportation, etc.), accounts receivable, mortgages for a car or another kind movable property or real estate (land, buildings). The loan can also be secured by a surety - an agreement with a unilateral written obligation of the guarantor to the bank to pay, if necessary, the debt of the borrower. A kind of loan security is a guarantee of another bank or other organization (for example, the founder of the borrower) to pay for the guaranteed interest or loan in case of non-payment by the borrower.

By maturity, loans are divided into demand loans (on call), the repayment of which the bank may require at any time, and urgent loans. The latter are divided into short-term (from one day to one year), medium-term (from one year to 5-8 years) and long-term - for longer periods. The terms of medium and long-term loans in different countries different.

Bank loans can be repaid in two ways. In the first case, the entire principal debt on the loan (excluding interest) must be repaid on one end date by a lump-sum payment. The second method of repayment is in installments. The loan amount is written off in installments during the term of the loan agreement. Payments to repay the principal amount of the debt are made, as a rule, in equal installments periodically (monthly, quarterly, every six months or annually). The second method of repayment is usually applied to medium- and long-term loans. Interest on a loan can also be paid in a lump sum at the end of the loan term or in equal installments throughout the life of the loan.

Sources of repayment of loans depend on the type of loan. Short-term loans are usually repaid by liquidating those inventories or accounts receivable for which the borrower received a loan to finance. Medium-term and long-term loans are repaid from the profit received from the use of the loan.

According to the form of issuance, bank loans are divided into loans in the form of opening credit line (credit limit); issuance of a fixed loan for a certain period; in the form of a bill (promissory note).

An open line of credit, or an open credit limit, is a legally executed agreement (sometimes it is concluded verbally) between the bank and the borrower to provide the borrower with a loan within the agreed amount within a certain period on certain conditions. Typically, a credit line is opened for no more than a year, but it can be extended.

This is the most common form of short-term credit in most industrialized countries. The convenience for the borrower and the bank with this form of loan is that during the term of the credit line, the borrower can receive a loan at any time without additional negotiations with the bank.

The peculiarity of the credit line is that the agreement on its opening can be revised by both parties. The bank retains the right to refuse to issue a loan within the credit limit, if, for example, the borrower's situation has worsened. The borrower also has the right not to use the credit line in whole or in part. Another feature of a credit line is that its opening is often accompanied by the bank's requirement for the borrower to keep a so-called compensatory balance in his current account in the amount of at least 20% of the amount of the credit line, either for the entire period of its validity, or the period of its actual use. As a result, the real level of interest charged on loans rises.

The technology of using a credit line is different. A loan under an open line of credit can be issued from a loan account opened by a bank, or a combined active-passive account is used, which records all operations of the bank with the client (loans provided by the bank to the client are recorded on the debit of the account, and the amounts received by the bank are recorded on the credit from the client in the form of proceeds from the sale of products, deposits, etc.).

A classic example of an active-passive account is a checking account. The loan provided on this account is called a contract loan. After the conclusion of the agreement on opening a current account, the current account is closed and all operations are carried out on the current account. Interest on a contract loan is calculated periodically on a balance basis, usually quarterly. The current credit is widely used in Germany, Belgium, Holland, Italy.

In the UK, France and Canada, the loan is provided in the form of an overdraft facility. This is perhaps the easiest method of lending. With an overdraft, the bank provides a loan by issuing money to the client (paying his bills) from his current account in excess of the balance available on the account within the credit limit. Limit amount, i.e. maximum amount overdraft, is established when opening a current account by agreement between the bank and the client. With an overdraft, all amounts credited to the client's current account are directed to repay the debt, so the amount of the loan changes as funds become available. Unlike a current account, interest on an overdraft is calculated daily.

Loans in a fixed amount for a certain period are issued, as a rule, to meet the target need for funds on the basis of a loan agreement, which, unlike an agreement on opening a credit line, is a firm obligation of the bank to issue a loan under the terms of the agreement. The peculiarity of such a loan is that it is repaid within a strictly established period when repaid in a lump sum or in accordance with a clear repayment schedule provided for in the loan agreement with regular periodic installments. Loans in the form of term loans can be both short-term and medium- and long-term. Term loans are issued from a loan account opened by a bank either by crediting the current or current account of the borrower to the loan, or by paying claims against the borrower or issuing in cash.

When a loan is issued in the form of a promissory note (the so-called promissory note), the bank, on the basis of a loan agreement, issues a promissory note to the borrower and issues it to the borrower. nominal cost the bill is equal to the amount of the loan, the date of repayment of the loan is set on the eve of the maturity of the bill. The borrower uses the promissory note received from the bank for settlements with his supplier, and in due time pays the bank the amount of the promissory note and interest on the loan in the form bank commission. When the bill of exchange matures, the bank pays its amount to the last holder of the bill.

The conditions for issuing loans are differentiated depending on the amount of the borrower's capital, his ties with the bank. More large enterprises having long-term close ties with banks, loans are provided for longer periods, without collateral, from more low interest. Usually, banks periodically set and publish a minimum primary, or base, rate - the rate on unsecured short-term loans to first-class borrowers. Depending on the category of borrowers, rates are set for them several points higher than the base one.

High inflation rates in the mid-70s. led to the spread of bank lending techniques that reduce credit risk. These are, first of all, the so-called rollover (from the English rollover - renewal), or renewable, loans. They are a type of medium- and long-term loans provided at “floating” interest rates, which are reviewed after terms stipulated in the loan agreement (usually three to six months) at current market rates at short-term loans. Upon agreement between the parties to the loan agreement of the total term of the loan, the period of its use is divided into time periods (sub-periods), for each of which the interest rate is set again. Although rollover loans are established for medium terms, they are issued for short terms, after which the loan is renewed, and so on until the total term of the loan expires. Periodic interest rate reviews reduce the risk of bank losses from higher rates on short-term deposits, which are the main source of resources for medium-term loans.

Reduction of credit risk is also provided by syndicated or consortium loans. This is the name of loans provided by two or more banks to one borrower. By providing such a loan, banks pool their funds for a period, forming a syndicate. In accordance with the agreement, each bank undertakes to provide funds in a certain amount for total loan. Syndicated loans can also be provided not by a syndicate, but by a separate bank, which, after concluding an agreement with the borrower, attracts other banks by issuing so-called participation certificates to them. The collective organization of loans allows you to distribute the risk of loan default among banks, reducing the risk of each bank, as well as increase the volume of credit.