Active and passive operations of commercial banks. Types of active operations of a commercial bank Active operations of a commercial bank mean

Implemented through their operations. The operations of commercial banks are divided into three groups: passive, active and commission-intermediary (carried out on behalf of the client on a commission basis: collection, settlement, factoring services, etc.).

The division of banking operations into passive and active is based on their influence on the formation and placement of banking resources. Bank resources - this is the amount of money that is available to him and can be used by him to carry out active operations.

Active operations of commercial banks

Active operations are operations for the placement of banking resources, and their role for any commercial bank very large. Active operations provide profitability and liquidity of the bank, i.e. allow to achieve two main objectives of the activities of commercial banks. Active operations are also of great national economic importance.

It is with the help of active operations that banks can direct the funds released in the course of economic activity to those participants in the economic turnover that need capital, ensuring the flow of capital into the most promising sectors of the economy, facilitating the growth of industrial investments, the introduction of innovations, the implementation of restructuring and stable growth. industrial production, expansion of housing construction. Bank loans to the population play an important social role.

Active operations can be divided into four types:

cash transactions (cash at the bank's cash desk, funds on accounts with the central bank and on correspondent accounts with the central bank and on correspondent accounts of other banks);
loan operations;
purchase of securities;
investments in fixed assets (land, building, equipment).

Passive operations of commercial banks

Passive operations are operations for the formation of banking resources, which are of great importance for every commercial bank. First, as already noted, the resource base largely determines the possibilities and scope of active operations that ensure the bank's income. Secondly, the stability of banking resources, their size and structure are the most important factors in the bank's reliability. And finally, the price of the resources received has an impact on the size of bank profits.

It should also be noted the important national economic and social role of passive operations of banks. The mobilization of temporarily free funds of enterprises and the population with their help allows the banking system to meet the needs of the economy in fixed and working capital, transform savings into productive investments, and provide consumer loans to the population. And interest on deposits and debt securities of banks at least partially compensate the population for losses from inflation.

Passive operations are divided into two groups:

on the formation of their own resources, which belong directly to the bank and do not require a return.
to attract funds for a time, with the help of which borrowed resources are formed; on operations of the second group, the bank has obligations (to depositors, banks and creditors).

One of the most important features of the structure of banks' liabilities, in comparison with non-financial enterprises, is the low share of own resources: usually from 10 to 22%, while in non-financial enterprises it averages from 40 to 50%. However, despite the relatively small specific gravity, own funds (capital) of the bank play a very important role in its activities. They perform three main functions: operational, protective and regulatory.

The operational function is that own funds (capital) serve as a financial resource for the development of the bank's material base. Without initial capital, no bank (as well as any enterprise) cannot begin to carry out its activities. It is at the expense of own funds that machines, equipment, computers, as well as land, buildings and other assets are purchased. Own funds (capital) can also be used to expand the network of branches and branches of the bank, for mergers. The amount of own funds (capital) determines the scale of the bank's activities in the final analysis. not randomly installed central bank the economic standards for the activities of banks, recommended by the Basel Committee, are based primarily on the amount of equity (capital) of the bank.

The protective function of the bank's own funds (capital) is to maintain the stability of the latter, to ensure the bank's obligations to depositors and creditors. The bank's own funds (capital) act as an insurance, guarantee fund, which allows the bank to maintain solvency even in the event of adverse circumstances, unforeseen expenses and losses that pose a threat to bank liquidity. Since own funds (capital) are non-refundable resources, they serve as a reserve to cover the bank's obligations. Within the limits of its own funds (capital), the bank guarantees 100% liability for its obligations. With this in mind, we can talk about the existence of an inverse relationship between the amount of own funds (capital) of the bank and its exposure to risk. The more own funds (capital) of the bank, the lower the risk of depositors and creditors, the more reliable the bank.

The protective function of the bank's own funds (capital) is closely related to the concept of "capital adequacy", i.e. the ability of the bank to repay financial losses at the expense of its own funds (capital), without resorting to borrowed resources. This ability is determined by the extent to which the amount of own funds (capital) is adequate, i.e. corresponds to the riskiness of banking assets, in other words, to the structure and quality of the latter. This means that the more bank assets are associated with significant risk, the greater should be the amount of own funds (capital) of the bank. That is why, in accordance with the recommendations of the Basel Committee, the capital adequacy ratio (ratio) of a bank is defined as the ratio of equity capital to its risk-weighted assets.

The regulatory function of own funds (capital) is that central banks regulate the activities of commercial banks by managing their own funds (capital) of the bank. Central banks establish, first, minimum size equity capital required to obtain banking license, and, secondly, the capital adequacy ratio. In addition, as already noted, the amount of own funds serves as the basis for most other economic standards for banking activities established by central banks.

As a result of passive operations, cash balances on the passive accounts of the bank's balance sheet increase (they take into account the bank's funds, balances on customer deposit accounts, debt on loans to other banks, bank profits, etc.). Active operations lead to an increase in funds in active accounts (they reflect: cash, bank loans, investments in securities, buildings, equipment, etc.).

There is a close relationship between passive and active operations of a commercial bank. Thus, the size and structure of active operations that provide income generation are largely determined by the resources available to banks. In this sense, passive operations that form the bank's resource base are primary in relation to active ones. By providing loans, buying securities, banks are forced to constantly monitor the state of liabilities, monitor the timing of payments on obligations to depositors. If there are not enough resources, the bank has to refuse profitable offers and sell high-yielding securities. At the same time, a significant part of bank deposits arises on the basis of active operations in the provision of loans in non-cash form. The relationship between passive and active operations is also manifested in the fact that bank profit depends on the bank margin, i.e. the difference between the price of bank resources and the profitability of active operations.

For successful operation, the bank must ensure the coordination of passive and active operations: on the one hand, it must not allow a significant discrepancy between the terms of liabilities and assets, for example, issuing long-term loans at the expense of short-term deposits; and on the other hand, not to immobilize short-term resources for a long period of time in an amount significantly exceeding the stable balance of funds in bank accounts, sufficient for regular payments.

There is also a relationship between certain types of liabilities and assets. Thus, opening a bank account for a large client is accompanied by the emergence of close regular ties between the client and the bank. In order not to lose a client, the bank provides him with significant loans, invests in his securities, provides him with various services for expenses, and performs commission transactions.

The role of active operations for "any" commercial bank is very high. Active operations provide profitability and liquidity of the bank, i.e. allow to achieve two main objectives of the activities of commercial banks. Active operations are also of great national economic importance; It is with the help of active operations that banks can direct the funds released in the course of economic activity to those participants in the economic turnover who need capital, ensuring the flow of capital into the most promising sectors of the economy, contributing to the growth of industrial investment, the introduction of innovations, the implementation of restructuring and the stable growth of industrial production. production, expansion of housing construction. Bank loans to the population play an important social role. There is a certain relationship between the profitability and riskiness of assets and their liquidity. The more risky an asset is, the more income it can bring to the bank (profitability serves as a payment for risk) and the lower its level of liquidity (a risky asset is more difficult to realize). The riskiest assets are usually both the most profitable and the least liquid.

Let's give a classification of assets according to such qualities as profitability, liquidity, riskiness.

According to the degree of profitability, all assets are divided into two groups:

* income-generating (so-called working), for example, bank loans, a significant part of investments in securities;

* not generating income (the so-called non-working); for example, these include: cash on hand; balances on correspondent and reserve accounts with the central bank; investments in fixed assets of the bank: buildings, equipment.

In terms of liquidity, there are three groups of assets.

1. Highly liquid assets. They can be immediately used to pay off withdrawn deposits or satisfy loan applications, as they are in cash or can be easily and quickly transferred to it. This includes cash on hand, correspondent and reserve accounts with the central bank, and correspondent accounts with other commercial banks.

2. Liquid assets are assets with an average degree of liquidity. They can be converted into cash with little delay and little risk of loss. These include demand loans and short-term loans, marketable bills and other short-term securities, primarily government.

3. Non-liquid (and even illiquid, hopeless) assets are those assets, the probability of which turning into cash is very small or even zero. These are long-term loans of the bank, its investments in long-term securities, hard-to-sell buildings, structures, long-term debts.

Up to 80% of banking assets account for lending operations and investments in securities. Income from these operations are the main sources of bank profits.

Lending operations include lending operations and operations to place deposits in other banks (active deposit operations). Loan operations are the provision of funds by the bank on the basis of a loan agreement on the terms of repayment, payment, and urgency. These operations bring banks, as a rule, the bulk of interest income.

Loan operations of banks can be classified according to the following criteria: by economic content and purpose, by category of borrowers, by security, by terms and methods of repayment, by the form of issuing a loan.

* joint-stock companies and private enterprises (industrial, commercial, municipal, agricultural, brokerage);

* credit and financial institutions (primarily banks);

* population;

* government and local authorities. Bank loans may be unsecured (blank) or secured. The loan can be secured by a pledge of shares, bonds, bills of exchange and documents of title (a warrant - a warehouse certificate confirming the presence of goods in a warehouse; a railway waybill; a bill of lading - a certificate of acceptance of cargo for sea transportation, etc.), debit accounts, mortgages for a car or other type of movable property or real estate. A loan secured by real estate is called a mortgage. A loan can also be secured by a surety or guarantee - an agreement with a unilateral written obligation of the guarantor or guarantor to the bank to repay the loan in case of non-payment by the borrower or insurance of the risk of non-repayment of the loan by an insurance company.

By maturity, loans are divided into demand loans (on-call), the repayment of which the bank may require at any time, and urgent. The latter are divided into short-term (from one day to one year), medium-term (from one to three to five years) and long-term - for longer periods. The terms of medium and long-term loans in different countries different.

Bank loans can be repaid in two ways. In the first case, the entire principal debt on the loan (excluding interest) must be repaid on one end date by a lump-sum payment. The second method of repayment is in installments. The loan amount is written off in installments during the term of the loan agreement. Payments to repay the principal amount of the debt are made, as a rule, in equal installments periodically (monthly, quarterly, every six months or annually). The second method of repayment is usually applied to medium- and long-term loans. Interest on a loan can also be paid in a lump sum at the end of the loan term or in equal installments throughout the life of the loan.

A classic example of an active-passive account is a checking account. The loan provided on this account is called a contract loan. After the conclusion of the agreement on opening a current account, the current account is closed, and all operations are carried out on the current account. Interest on a contract loan is calculated periodically on a balance basis, usually quarterly. The current credit is widely used in Germany, Belgium, Holland, Italy.

The bank's active operations with securities include four main types.

1. Investments in securities purchased for resale in order to obtain exchange rate profit (the difference between the purchase and sale rates). These securities are kept in the bank's portfolio for a short time.

2. Purchase of securities in order to receive income in the form of interest (on bonds, promissory notes, certificates of deposit) and dividends (on shares), as well as participation in the management of the enterprise. Such securities are kept in the bank's portfolio for a long time (usually more than a year) and are called bank investments.

3. Investments in securities purchased under repo type transactions. When buying such securities, the bank simultaneously assumes the obligation to sell them back after a certain period at a fixed rate. In other words, the bank makes a purchase of securities on the terms of their resale.

4. Accounting operations. These are mainly operations with bills of exchange. Accounting for a bill is the purchase of a bill by a bank (with the transfer of a bill to the bank by endorsement). When buying a bill from the holder of the bill, the bank gets the right to receive money on the bill at the end of its term. For the fact that the bank advances the drawer, giving him money immediately, although the maturity of the bill comes, for example, in a month, the bank charges the drawer who presented the bill for accounting, a discount or discount. The discount is equal to the difference between the amount indicated on the bill and the amount paid by the bank when discounting the bill. At the expiration of the bill of exchange, the bank presents it to the debtor for redemption (see Fig. 9.3). The meaning of this operation for the bank is to receive the discount interest, and for the holder who presented the bill for accounting, to receive money on the bill before its maturity.

There is a close relationship between passive and active operations of a commercial bank. First of all, the size and structure of active operations that provide revenues are largely determined by the resources available to banks. In this sense, passive operations that form the bank's resource base are primary in relation to active ones. By providing loans, buying securities, banks are forced to constantly monitor the state of liabilities, monitor the timing of payments on obligations to depositors. If there are not enough resources, the bank has to refuse profitable offers and sell high-yielding securities. At the same time, a significant part of bank deposits arises on the basis of active operations when providing loans in a non-cash form. The relationship between passive and active operations is also manifested in the fact that bank profit depends on the bank margin, i.e. the difference between the price of bank resources and the profitability of active operations.

Active operations are operations through which banks place the resources at their disposal for profit; operations to provide funds, differing in terms, sizes, types of users, credit resources, nature of collateral, forms of transfer of funds. These are short-term and long-term lending, provision of consumer loans to the population, purchase of securities, leasing, factoring, innovative financing and lending, equity participation of bank funds in the economic activities of enterprises, and so on. Active operations in terms of economic content are divided into: loan, settlement, cash, investment, guaranteed.

Active operations of a commercial bank can be divided into 4 large groups:

- credit operations (or loans);
- investments in securities;
- settlement- cash transactions;
- intermediary operations.

Credit operations

To date, there are a number of interpretations of the concept of a loan, but the definition of a loan as a transaction of legal entities and individuals on the provision by one party to another of a certain amount of money (sometimes property) on terms of payment, repayment and urgency is considered unified in them. These conditions are the basic principles of lending, i.e. the main rules that must be observed in its implementation.

The presence of supply and demand for credit funds predetermined the emergence and formation of credit markets. Credit transactions made on them are mediated mainly by banks that borrow and lend money.

Credit relations involve the movement of value (loan capital) from the bank (creditor) to the borrower (debtor) and vice versa. Borrowers are enterprises of all forms of ownership (joint-stock enterprises and firms, state enterprises, private entrepreneurs, etc.), as well as the population.

The return of the value received by the borrower (repayment of the debt to the bank) on the scale of one enterprise and the entire economy should be the result of reproduction on an increasing scale. This determines the economic role of credit and serves as one of the most important conditions for the bank to receive profit from credit operations. Indebtedness on loans provided to the population can be repaid by reducing accumulation and even reducing consumption compared to the previous period. At the same time, lending to the population ensures the growth of consumption, stimulates an increase in demand for goods (especially expensive, durable goods) and depends on the income level of the population, which determines the possibility for banks to profit from these operations.

Credit operations occupy the largest share in the structure of banking assets.

In Russian practice, short-term loans (loans up to 1 year) are most often used; medium-term (from 1 to 3 years) and long-term (over 3 years). In foreign practice, the share of short-term, as a rule, accounts for significantly less than half of all loans and more than half - for medium-term ones.

According to the repayment method, demand loans (on-call) are usually highlighted among short-term loans, which are issued without a clearly defined repayment period, that is, a loan can be returned at the request of the bank and the borrower.

The structure of loans provided by commercial banks depends on many factors, both long-term and opportunistic. In the country as a whole, it is determined by the traditions of banking practice. Some methods of bank lending to enterprises and the population can be said to be universal and widespread in many countries, although they may have minor differences when applied in individual countries. For example, such types of loans as overdraft, credit lines, real estate loans (mortgage), etc.

The financial and credit policy of the state has a significant impact on the change in the structure, which may impose restrictions or provide benefits on types of credit - to regulate the economy that affects the lending operations carried out by banks.

bank credit policy. Commercial banks, in accordance with their specifics, develop general principles of credit policy (in world practice - a memorandum on credit policy), form its main goal, the main directions of lending.

Credit operations are associated with risk, the degree of which in the Russian Federation in the context of a decline in production and economic instability is growing. This determines the need for the formation of a quality loan portfolio bank, in which the share of riskier transactions should be less, despite the fact that in some cases such transactions may be more profitable for the bank. The degree of risk should correspond to the usual rate of return on loans, taking into account the cost of credit resources and administrative costs of the bank. When determining a credit policy, a credit strategy should be oriented towards diversification of both the composition of clients and the range of loans (services) provided by them, which is necessary in a competitive environment.

The development and improvement of production processes predetermines the need of enterprises for long-term bank loan, whose share in the total amount of credit investments of commercial banks is very small. The existing significant unsatisfied demand for investment resources, as well as the sharply reduced profitability of short-term bank operations, the crisis in the interbank loan market and the government's tight foreign exchange policy increase the relevance of long-term investments, so that investment policy begins to really influence the formation of the bank's strategy.

There has already been a general trend of growing interest of commercial banks in long-term loans. First of all, this applies to banks, which, in the course of privatization, became the owners of enterprises.

Investment operations

Western banks traditionally make long-term investments in response to the wishes and suggestions of their customers (CITIBANK: “We don’t have any pre-determined projects that we will carry out, we follow our customers”), however, Russian banks are striving to take a more active position, and all more often they themselves act as initiators of investment projects.

In the process of making investment transactions, the bank acts as an investor, investing resources in securities or acquiring rights for joint economic activities. This participation in the economic activities of the enterprise brings income to the bank through direct participation in the creation of profits. The economic purpose of such operations, as a rule, is associated with a long-term investment of funds directly into production.

For domestic commercial banks, assets in the form of securities are the least liquid compared to loans, since in the absence of a developed secondary securities market, the sale of shares and bonds of enterprises is very difficult.

Banks also invest in office buildings, equipment, and rent as a form of investment activity. These investments are made at the expense of the bank's own capital, their purpose is to provide conditions for banking. These investments do not bring income to the bank and have a relatively low share in the assets of commercial banks. But it is these assets that provide commercial banks with a material basis for making a profit.

The objectives of the investment activity are to provide the bank with the safety of funds, income and liquidity. The requirements for the return on investment are usually higher than for the return on other types of banking assets. Higher income is achieved at the expense of liquidity and is associated, as a rule, with more high level risk, so investments should be diversified.

In Russia, the role of banks in the implementation of investment projects will increase, as these are practically the only economic structures accumulating funds. In dealing with investments, banks are now virtually the only element of the system of institutions needed for investment infrastructure.

Cash transactions

The presence of cash assets in the required amount is the most important condition for ensuring the normal functioning of commercial banks that use cash to exchange money, return deposits, meet the demand for loans and cover operating expenses, including staff salaries, payment for various materials and services. The money supply depends on: the value of the bank's current liabilities; the timing of the issuance of money to customers; settlements with own personnel; business development, etc. Lack of sufficient funds can undermine the credibility of the bank. Inflation affects the amount of cash. It increases the risk of depreciation of money, so they must be put into circulation as soon as possible, placed in profitable assets. Due to inflation, more and more cash is required.

Cash transactions - transactions related to the movement of cash, with the formation, placement and use of funds on various active accounts.

Operations of banks with cash are carried out in specially equipped premises - cash desks. Cash desks recalculate the cash receipts of clients, forming it into standard bundles of one hundred banknotes of the same denomination of paper banknotes of the Central Bank. Spine - ten formed packs. The formed blocks of funds are transferred to the expense cash desks for conducting operations with clients or their cash services. The collection of cash proceeds from enterprises, organizations and institutions is entrusted to banks and is called collection, or the delivery of cash to their cash desks.

The value of bank cash transactions is determined by the fact that they determine the formation of cash in the economy, the ratio of funds between various assets, articles, the proportions between the mass of paper, credit notes and billon (bargaining) coins.

Intermediary and commission transactions

Banks also carry out commission transactions, that is, "carry out various orders of their clients at their expense." Such instructions are connected with the transfer of money both within one country and from one country to another. These are transfer operations in which the client instructs his bank (in which he entered the settlement and cash services and with which he entered into an agreement on settlement and cash services) to transfer a certain amount from the client's account to the specified addressee. When the transaction is completed, the bank sends or issues (if the client comes to the bank in person) a document confirming the transfer. The bank charges a fee for the transaction.

A letter of credit transaction consists in the fact that the bank accepts an order from the client to make a payment to a third party (beneficiary), i.e. to the person in whose favor the letter of credit is opened, or to accept the bills of exchange of the beneficiary, or to make payment to the beneficiary, but only under certain conditions.

Collection operations are operations for the receipt by banks for clients of money on their behalf and at their expense according to various documents. Collection operations are carried out with checks, bills of exchange, commodity documents and securities. When collecting securities, the client transfers them to the bank for sale on the market of the country where they were issued.

Factoring operations are also referred to as intermediary. Their essence is that the bank buys debt claims (invoices) of the client and, accordingly, the right to receive payment on these claims on the terms of immediate payment of 80% of the cost of invoiced deliveries and payment of the rest, minus interest on the loan and commission payments, in strictly stipulated terms, regardless of the receipt of proceeds from debtors. The activity of banking factoring departments is designed to solve in this case the problems of risks and payment terms in relations between suppliers and buyers and to give these relations greater stability.

Leasing operations - a type of investment activity for the acquisition of property from a supplier and its transfer on the basis of a leasing agreement to individuals and legal entities (lessees) for a certain fee for a certain period and on certain conditions with the right to subsequently buy out the property - the subject of leasing.

A special kind of commission transactions are trust (trust) transactions, which consist in the fact that the bank, on behalf of clients, takes upon itself the storage, transfer and management of certain property, denominated both in money and in securities. Commissions also include trading and commission transactions - the purchase and sale of precious metals and precious stones on behalf of the client, the purchase and sale of securities, etc.

The development of credit relations and the risks associated with them makes it necessary for creditors who seek to avoid financial losses to use bank guarantees (guarantees).

A bank guarantee means that the bank undertakes an obligation in case of non-payment by the client of the payments due from him on time, to make a payment at his own expense. Unless otherwise provided by the contract, the debtor and the guarantor (guarantor) shall be jointly and severally liable to the creditor. In foreign practice, a bank guarantee has become widespread. In Russia, in conditions of economic and legal instability, various banking risks, the rates of guarantor banks are much higher than abroad.

The expansion of the variety of banking operations, as well as the increase in their complexity, necessitate the provision of various consulting operations (advisory services) to clients, which are also commission. These can be consultations on the procedure for opening and maintaining settlement, current and foreign currency accounts; advice on the application of provisions on credit, settlement and cash transactions; consulting services on the issuance and circulation of securities on the stock market; advice on the preparation of settlement documents. Such consulting services are a necessary part of the bank's operations, they allow to increase the bank's authority, to make it additional advertising. Comprehensive customer service of the bank - from advising on individual issues to developing ways to implement the recommended proposals - is carried out with the help of consulting operations.

Active CB operations- these are operations for the placement of own, attracted and borrowed funds in order to make a profit and maintain the liquidity of the bank. Active and passive operations of CB are closely related to each other and interdependent. The structure of bank resources predetermines the timing and nature of their possible placement, at the same time, assets attractive to the bank stimulate it to search for appropriate resources.

Active operations can be divided into the following groups:

1) cash transactions, i.e. cash transactions: acceptance, issuance, storage of cash;

2) accounting and loan operations: granting a loan, accounting operations with bills of exchange and other commercial securities;

3) investment transactions with securities;

4) currency transactions;

5) interbank operations: lending, interbank settlements on correspondent accounts, interbank deposits.

Loan operations form the basis of active activity of banks in the placement of their resource base. On a macroeconomic scale, the significance of these operations lies in the fact that, through them, banks turn temporarily inactive funds into active ones, stimulating the processes of production, circulation and consumption.

The second group of active operations are investment. In the process of their commission, the bank acts as an investor, investing resources in securities or acquiring rights for joint economic activities. These operations also generate income for the bank through direct participation in the creation of profits. The economic purpose of these operations, as a rule, is associated with a long-term investment of funds directly into production.

A variety of investment operations of banks is investing in buildings, equipment and paying rent. These investments are made at the expense of the bank's own capital, their purpose is to provide conditions for banking activities. These investments do not bring income to the bank. When investing in securities, banks are guided by the goal of generating income and ensuring the liquidity of a certain group of their assets. The main content of the bank's active investment policy is the definition of the range of securities that are most profitable for investment, optimization of the investment portfolio structure for each specific period.

Other active operations are diverse in form and bring significant income to banks abroad. In Russian practice, their range is still limited. Other active operations include: operations with foreign currency and precious metals, trust, agency, commodity, settlement and others.

Active banking operations are diverse in form and purpose, in which the bank plays different roles, which reflects the different economic content of the bank's assets. According to the economic content, all CB assets can be divided into four groups:

1. Free reserves are cash on hand, balances on a correspondent account with the RCC of the Bank of Russia and on correspondent accounts with other credit institutions. Free reserves are the most liquid type of bank assets. But, as a rule, these assets either do not generate income, or provide minimal income;

2. Loans provided and funds placed in the form of deposits with other credit institutions, including the Bank of Russia. When placing resources in the form of loans or deposits, the bank has fixed requirements for borrowers. The bank's income from these operations is established at the conclusion of the transaction. It is paid in the form of interest;

3. Investments are the investment of the bank's resources in securities and other financial assets (foreign currency, precious metals), as well as equity participation in joint economic activities. By investing in various securities and other financial assets, CBs pursue different goals. So, buying foreign currency, gold or government securities (of a high degree of reliability), CBs increase their liquidity reserve, because. these values can be quickly converted into the necessary funds for the bank. By carrying out the so-called portfolio investment(buying stocks, bonds, other types of securities), CBs expect to receive additional income in the form of dividends, interest and growth in market value. To participate in the management of the enterprise, banks acquire controlling stakes in corporations, make direct production investments;

4. Material and intangible assets the bank itself (internal investment) - the cost of the bank building, equipment and other property necessary for the operation of the bank. It should be noted that the successful development of the bank, the strengthening of its position in the loan capital market requires a constant increase in the cost of expanding and improving the material base of the bank. This type of assets not only does not bring income to the bank, but is constantly associated with expenses. In addition, it is characterized by very low liquidity.

Thus, the bank's assets are grouped according to the level of profitability, the level of risk and the degree of liquidity.

According to the level of profitability, bank assets are divided into:

Income-generating (loans, a significant share of investment operations, part of deposit operations, loans and others);

Non-income-generating (cash, balances on correspondent and reserve accounts with the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, investments in fixed assets of the bank, free reserves and tangible assets).

The bank's assets must be liquid, i.e. easily converted into cash. From the point of view of liquidity in banking practice, there are:

a) highly liquid assets, i.e. assets that are directly in monetary form (reserves of the first priority) or easily convertible into monetary form (reserves of the second priority). Reserves of the first stage include cash on hand, balances on correspondent accounts (if there are no restrictions on their use). Easily marketable government securities are considered second priority reserves when there is a capacious and liquid secondary market. (as indicated by government securities of the Russian Federation as a result of financial crisis in the country have now lost their liquidity);

b) short-term liquid assets - short-term loans and securities that have a secondary market;

c) hard-to-sell assets - long-term loans, securities that do not have a developed secondary market, equity participation in joint activities;

d) low-liquid assets - investments in fixed assets of the bank.

Active credit operations should be understood as a financial and legal act of a transaction drawn up by an agreement between a creditor (bank) issuing a loan and a debtor (legal or natural person) receiving it.

The main types of loans can be classified by lending method– as loan applications are received or by opening a credit line. Opening credit limit(lines) means reaching an agreement between the bank and the borrower on the maximum amount of debt within a specified period (for example, for six months, a year, but an extension is also possible). During this period, the borrower can at any time receive the entire loan or part of it without additional negotiations with the bank. At the same time, a bank that closely monitors the financial performance of the borrower may terminate the provision of a loan within the approved limit and demand the return of the amount issued if the borrower's situation has worsened during the period of using the loan. And vice versa, the client has the right not to use the credit line in whole or in part. The opening of a credit line is often accompanied by a bank requirement for the borrower to keep on his current account a so-called compensatory balance of at least 20% of the amount of the credit line, either for the entire period of its validity, or the period of its actual use.

The technology of using a credit line is different. The issuance of a loan under an open line of credit can be made from a loan account opened by a bank or applied to a combined active-passive account, which takes into account all bank transactions with a client. A classic example of an active-passive account is checking account, which combines current and loan accounts. All cash receipts in favor of the client (proceeds from the sale of goods, crediting on received debts of creditors, etc.) are credited to the checking account. The debit of the account records loans granted by the bank to the client, as well as all payments to the client. With a credit balance, the customer has cash in the bank, while with a debit balance, the bank has extended a loan to the customer, for which the customer pays interest to the bank. Interest on a contract loan is calculated periodically on a balance basis, usually quarterly. The difference between debit and credit interest is the bank's margin, or income.

Another method of lending to a client using the line of credit method is overdraft lending, which is the simplest method of lending. With an overdraft, the bank provides a loan, giving the client money from his current account in excess of the balance available on the account within the credit limit. Limit amount, i.e. the maximum overdraft amount is set when opening a current account by agreement between the bank and the client. With an overdraft, all amounts credited to the client's current account are directed to repay the debt, so the amount of the loan changes as funds become available. Unlike a current account, interest on an overdraft is calculated daily. When comparing an overdraft with a loan, both advantages and disadvantages should be noted.

An overdraft is more profitable for a client than a loan under a separate loan agreement if it is necessary to finance short-term and current small expenses, for example, a one-time purchase of a car, a computer. When financing medium or large costs of medium and long duration, a loan is preferable. With an overdraft, interest is paid when expenses exceed the balance of funds in the current account, and with a loan, as a rule, fixed interest is set for a certain period of time.

For reliable clients with a good business reputation, a bank with an overdraft can quickly and quickly provide additional benefits than with a regular loan. As a rule, the bank must provide the client with an overdraft for a certain commission if the client uses loans. In a certain sense, an overdraft is a financial reward for a client for the right relationship with the bank.

In Russian practice, commercial banks provide overdraft facilities to clients subject to a number of conditions:

a sufficient period of conducting activities from the moment of state registration;

conclusion of a bank account agreement for settlement and cash services;

lack of requirements for a current account (card file No. 2) within six months;

the presence of constant turnover on the current account;

the diversified nature of the client's credit turnover (the overdraft lending limit is not set for clients whose monthly credit turnover on the account is formed due to a small amount of receipts or only due to receipts from a small number of counterparties);

impeccable credit history;

financial stability.

With the commonality of the basic features of overdraft lending, banks can use different mechanisms for setting an overdraft limit. Most Russian commercial banks provide three types of overdraft limits: standard, for collection and technical overdraft.

The standard overdraft limit and the overdraft limit for collection are calculated based on the minimum monthly credit turnover on the client's bank account. The technical overdraft limit is determined in the amount of up to 90% of the amount of guaranteed receipts to the current account within the next three business days.

Loans in a fixed amount for a certain period are issued, as a rule, to meet the target need for funds on the basis of a loan agreement, which, unlike an agreement on opening a credit line, is a firm obligation of the bank to issue a loan on the terms of the agreement. The peculiarity of such a loan is that it is repaid within a strictly established period when repaid in a lump sum or in accordance with a clear repayment schedule provided for in the loan agreement with regular periodic installments. Loans in the form of term loans can be both short-term and medium- and long-term. Term loans are issued from a loan account opened by a bank either by crediting the current or current account of the borrower to the loan, or by paying claims against the borrower or issuing in cash.

When a loan is issued in the form of a promissory note (the so-called promissory note), the bank, on the basis of a loan agreement, issues a promissory note to the borrower and issues it to the borrower. The nominal value of the bill is equal to the amount of the loan, the date of repayment of the loan is set on the eve of the maturity of the bill. The borrower uses the promissory note received from the bank to settle accounts with his supplier, and pays the bank the amount of the promissory note and interest on the loan in the form of a bank commission within the prescribed period. When the bill of exchange matures, the bank pays its amount to the last holder of the bill.

Depending on the maturity of the loan short-term, medium-term and long-term loans are allocated. Short-term loans serve the current needs of the borrower related to the movement of working capital. Short-term loans are those whose repayment period is international standards does not exceed 1 year. However, in practice, this period may not be the same, which is determined by economic conditions, the degree of inflation.

Short term loan serves as one of the forms of formation and movement of the working capital of enterprises. It contributes to the formation of their working capital, increases solvency and strengthens their financial position. Short-term credit is provided by banks for the formation of seasonal excess stocks of inventory items, for seasonal costs associated with the production and procurement of products, temporary replenishment of the lack of working capital, etc.

Medium-term and long-term loans serve long-term needs due to the need to modernize production, the implementation of capital expenditures to expand production. There is no established standard term as a criterion for classifying a loan as a medium-term or long-term loan. As a rule, loans that form working capital are short-term, and loans involved in the expanded reproduction of fixed assets are medium and long-term loans. In addition to short-, medium- and long-term loans, there is a type of special term loan - an on-call loan (demand loan), which is repaid on demand. It is issued by the bank to brokers, dealers and clients for ultra-short-term needs and is used, as a rule, for stock speculation.

By availability of collateral- secured and unsecured (blank). Russian banks tend to provide secured loans, in which they are also interested in the regulatory system of the Central Bank of Russia. As additional security for the return of the principal amount and payment of interest in the Russian Federation, a pledge, surety and a bank guarantee are used.

bank guarantee- this is a written obligation to the creditor to pay him, upon presentation of a written demand, a sum of money in accordance with the terms of the guarantee. A bank guarantee as a tool for ensuring the repayment of a loan differs from a pledge and a guarantee in its independence from the loan agreement and recompense. The guarantor's liability is limited to the amount specified in the guarantee, regardless of the actual debt of the principal (guarantee recipient) under the underlying obligation, unless otherwise provided for in the guarantee.

Guarantee- under a guarantee agreement, the guarantor undertakes to be responsible to the creditor of another person for the fulfillment of his obligation in full or in part (Article 361 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). The guarantor is liable to the creditor to the same extent as the debtor.

By bail the creditor under the obligation secured by the pledge (pledgee) has the right, in the event of the debtor's failure to fulfill this obligation, to receive satisfaction from the value of the pledged property predominantly over other creditors, with exceptions established by law (clause 1 of article 334 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). The subject of pledge may be any property and property rights (claims), except for property withdrawn from circulation, property whose pledge is prohibited by law, as well as claims inextricably linked with the personality of the creditor. The pledger can be either the debtor himself or a third party.

Loan repayment methods are important. The most common type of loans is a loan against stocks of inventory items, since they are the most reliable collateral for a loan. Goods can serve as collateral for a loan. material values, documents of title. Commodity loans are issued by banks not in the full amount of the market value of the goods, but part of it (as a rule, no more than 50%, and in rare cases of favorable economic conditions - up to 70% of the market value of the goods).

Since in a market economy the main problem is the sale of goods, the goods produced and shipped may not find their buyer. This is the main difference between credit relations in market conditions and the administrative-command system. When lending against commodity collateral in market conditions, lending institutions take a great risk, because if the loan is not repaid on time, the bank seizes the goods that serve as collateral for the loan, and can cover the client's debt from the proceeds from their sale. But not in all cases the goods can be sold.

Promissory note transactions are subdivided into bill accounting transactions and bill-based loans. Accounting (discounting) of bills means the purchase of bills by the bank before the expiration of their maturity. As a result, they are completely transferred to his disposal, and with them the right to demand payments from bill holders. In turn, the bank, if it experiences difficulty in funds, can re-discount these bills in the regional department of the Central Bank. Given the bill, the bank becomes its owner and pays the person who issued the bill or presented it for accounting, a certain amount of money. For this operation, the bank charges the client a certain percentage, which is called the discount percentage or discount. Discount - the difference between the amount indicated on the bill and the amount paid to the holder of the bill. Sometimes banks organize in their composition accounting committees that study the creditworthiness of individual customers, setting a limit for accounting bills for individuals and enterprises.

Loans secured by bills of exchange differ from accounting for bills in that the ownership of the bill is not transferred to the bank, it is only pledged by the bill holder for a certain period with subsequent redemption after the loan is repaid, i.e. upon expiration of the loan, the borrower repays it together with interest and receives the bill back: in this case, the loan is not issued within full amount bills, but only 60-80% of its face value. Promissory notes accepted as collateral are subject to the same requirements of a legal or economic order as to accountable ones.

Loans secured by securities are issued, as a rule, not in the amount of their full market value, but a certain part of them (50-60%), which are transferred to the bank from the borrower only temporarily as loan security until it is returned along with interest. Securities represent fictitious capital. Loans against securities, as a rule, are not connected with the actual production of goods, but serve mainly as an instrument for financing speculation on the stock exchange.

When issuing large loans, real estate is accepted as collateral. Loans secured by real estate are called mortgage loans. As collateral for mortgage loans for enterprises of various forms of ownership are land and agricultural buildings, premises. For individual borrowers, mortgage loans can be collateralized residential buildings, apartments. The loan amount is usually 50-90% of the value of the property. With regard to movable property, equipment, inventory, machines, vehicles, and for individuals - durable items, including cars, can be pledged.

Depending on the subject of lending distinguish between loans to state and non-state enterprises and organizations, citizens engaged in self-employment, other banks, other businesses, including authorities, joint ventures, international associations and organizations.

By appointment distinguish consumer, trade, agricultural, investment, budgetary credit.

By repayment method Distinguish between bank loans repaid at a time on a certain date and repaid in installments.

The demand for credit from large corporate and industrial structures led to the development of such a form of lending as consortium or syndicated loans- such loans are provided by several lenders (banking consortium) to one borrower. A banking consortium pools its temporarily free funds for a certain period of time in order to lend to a borrower or an object. Borrowers of consortial loans can be enterprises, organizations, banks, the state. The objects of lending are commodity operations, operations in the securities market, foreign exchange market, projects for the implementation of R&D results.

Investment operations of banks- these are investments of cash or other reserves of the bank in securities, real estate, authorized funds of enterprises and organizations, other investment objects, the market value of which is able to grow and bring income to the bank in the form of interest, dividends, exchange rate differences (profit from resale).

Acting as intermediaries in transactions with securities, commercial banks perform a range of services - raising funds for the development of production (underwriting); mergers, acquisitions and restructuring of enterprises; formation and management of investment portfolios of clients; work with client-investors to provide information about the current situation on the market for making competent investment decisions; brokerage and dealer operations, depositary services.

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Active operations of a commercial bank: essence, classification and meaning

Introduction

Chapter 1. Theoretical aspects of active operations of a commercial bank

1.1 The concept, essence and classification of active operations of a commercial bank

1.2 Legislative regulation active operations of a commercial bank

Chapter 2. Analysis of active operations of a commercial bank of the Russian Federation

2.1 Analysis of active operations

2.2 Mathematical modeling of active operations

Chapter 3. Problems and prospects for the development of active operations of Russian commercial banks

Conclusion

List of used literature

INTRODUCTION

Relevance of the research topic. Active operations represent the use of own and borrowed resources, carried out by the bank to receive a profit. In the process of conducting active operations, banks make various investments that generate income in the form of interest, dividends or participation in the profits of joint ventures.

Economic entity active operations of commercial banks consists in the following economically interrelated tasks that banks solve by carrying out active operations: achieving profitability to cover costs, paying dividends on shares, interest on deposits and deposits, and making a profit; ensuring the solvency of the bank, which is understood as the ability of the bank to meet its obligations in a timely manner and in full; ensuring liquidity, that is, the ability to quickly (preferably without loss) the transformation of assets into cash. The largest role in the active operations of commercial banks is played by credit operations and operations with securities.

In modern conditions, commercial banks are expanding the range of services and operations intended to generate income. Such operations include trust, guarantee, operations using plastic cards and more. All of the above determined the relevance of the research topic.

The object of study is the active operations of a commercial bank.

The subject of the study is the problems and prospects for the development of active operations of a commercial bank.

The purpose of the course work was to study the active operations of a commercial bank.

Based on the purpose of the study, the following tasks were set:

To study the theoretical aspects of the active operations of a commercial bank;

Conduct an analysis of the active operations of a commercial bank of the Russian Federation;

To reveal the problems of development of active operations of Russian commercial banks;

Determine the prospects for the development of active operations of Russian commercial banks.

The theoretical and methodological basis of the study was legal acts, works of domestic and foreign authors, scientific articles and methodological manuals.

The course work consists of an introduction, three chapters, including paragraphs, conclusions, a list of references.

Chapter 1. Theoretical aspects of active operations of a commercial bank

1.1 concept, essenceand classificationactive operations of a commercial bank

The definition of a bank as an institution that accumulates free cash and places it on a repayable basis makes it possible to distinguish between passive and active operations in its activities.

In accordance with the provision of the Law “On Banks and Banking Activity”, the Federal Law “On Banks and Banking Activity” dated 03.02.1996 No. 17-FZ contains a mention of the operations and services of banks. Change 07/28/2004. . In the domestic economic literature, they often do not distinguish between these concepts. At the same time, the definition of banking services as "mass transactions" is widespread. However, it is not clear from this definition how services differ from banking operations. Meanwhile, banking services can only be discussed within the framework of the “client-bank” relationship. It is the presence of a client that allows us to consider the bank's operations as its services. Thus, a banking service is one or more bank operations that satisfy a specific customer need. In addition, the services of commercial banks can be defined as the conduct of banking operations on behalf of the client in favor of the latter for a fee.

According to Yu.I. Lvov, the main active operations are: credit operations, as a result of which the bank's loan portfolio is formed; investment operations that form the basis for the formation of an investment portfolio; cash and settlement operations, which are one of the main types of services provided by the bank to its customers; other active operations related to the creation of an appropriate infrastructure that ensures the successful completion of all banking operations.

Lavrushin O.I. believes that the most common active operations of banks are Banking. Ed. Lavrushina O.I. - M.: 2015 - 765 p. :

· Loan operations, as a rule, bring banks the bulk of their income. On a macroeconomic scale, the significance of these operations lies in the fact that, through them, banks turn temporarily inactive monetary funds into active ones, stimulating the processes of production, circulation and consumption;

· investment operations, in the process of their commission, the bank acts as an investor, investing resources in securities or acquiring rights for joint economic activities;

· deposit operations, the purpose of active deposit operations of banks is to create current and long-term reserves of means of payment in accounts with the Central Bank (correspondent account and reserve account) and other commercial banks;

Other active operations, various in form, bring significant income to banks abroad. In Russian practice, their range is still limited. Other active operations include: operations with foreign currency and precious metals, trust, agency, commodity, etc.

The economic essence of active operations

Active operations are banking activities for the placement of own and borrowed funds available from commercial banks for the purpose of making a profit.

The economic essence of active operations of commercial banks lies in the following economically interrelated tasks that banks solve by carrying out active operations:

1) achieving profitability to cover costs, pay dividends on shares, interest on deposits and deposits, and make a profit;

2) ensuring the solvency of the bank, which is understood as the ability of the bank to meet its obligations in a timely manner and in full;

3) ensuring liquidity, that is, the ability to quickly (preferably without loss) the transformation of assets into cash.

The quality of assets is determined by their properties: profitability, liquidity, degree of risk.

Assets are divided into:

Non-income-generating assets - these include the cash desk, the mandatory reserve fund of the Central Bank, funds on correspondent accounts;

Income-generating assets - credit operations, operations with securities, income from the lease of buildings and structures.

By liquidity, assets are divided into:

1. first-class assets - cash on hand, on correspondent accounts, government securities;

2. liquid assets - short-term loans, interbank loans, factoring operations, operations with securities; this group of assets have a longer period of conversion into cash;

3. low-liquid assets - long-term loans, investments in investment securities (with a term of more than 6 months), leasing operations;

4. illiquid assets - overdue loans, securities of insolvent or bankrupt organizations.

Riskiness - the potential probability of losses when converting assets into cash. The main banking risks include:

Credit risk - non-repayment of principal and interest on it;

Interest risk - losses as a result of the excess of interest on attracted resources over interest on allocated resources;

Portfolio risk - the probability of losses from transactions made in the securities market;

Currency risk - losses due to changes in the exchange rate of a foreign currency against the national currency.

The economic content of the active operations of organizations is manifested in their classification. The classification of assets can be based on the following features:

Type of operation;

Degree of riskiness;

The nature of the placement of funds;

Level of profitability;

Liquidity level;

Regularity of implementation;

Cash flow in accounts.

Depending on the type of operation, active operations of credit institutions are divided into loan, settlement, cash, investment and stock, commission, guarantee.

Loan operations are operations for the issuance (provision) of funds to the borrower on the basis of urgency, repayment and payment.

According to Russian legislation, lending operations are equated to:

Provision of credits (loans), placement of deposits, including interbank credits (deposits, loans), other placement of funds, including placement of claims for receipt (return) of debt securities, shares and promissory notes provided under a loan agreement;

Accounting for bills;

Payment by the credit institution to the beneficiary of the amounts bank guarantees, and its recovered from the principal;

Monetary claims of a credit institution under financing transactions against the assignment of a monetary claim (factoring);

Claims of the credit institution under the rights (claims) acquired under the transaction (assignment of the claim);

Claims of a credit institution for mortgages purchased on the secondary market;

Claims of a credit institution for sale (purchase) transactions financial assets with deferred payment (delivery of financial assets);

Claims of a credit institution to payers under paid letters of credit (in terms of uncovered export and import letters of credit);

REPO transactions (direct and reverse);

Claims of a credit institution (lessor) against a lessee under financial lease (leasing) operations.

Settlement transactions are operations to pay from customer accounts their obligations to counterparties.

Cash transactions are transactions for the issuance of cash.

Investment operations are operations for the investment by a credit institution of its funds in securities and shares of non-banking structures for the purpose of joint commercial activities.

Stock transactions are transactions with securities (other than investment) on the organized (exchange) and unorganized markets.

Stock transactions include:

Operations with bills of exchange for the purchase, protest of bills, collection, domiciliation, acceptance, endorsement, issuance of bill orders, storage of bills, etc.;

Operations with stock securities listed on stock exchanges - dealer and brokerage;

Operations with derivative financial instruments.

Commission transactions are operations carried out by credit institutions on behalf of, on behalf of, and at the expense of customers and generating income in the form of a commission.

These operations include: operations for the collection of receivables, transfer operations, trade and commission (purchase of currency, precious stones and metals, and others), trust operations, operations to provide clients with legal and other services.

Guarantee operations are operations for the issuance by a credit institution of a guarantee or guarantee for the payment of a client's debt to a third party upon the occurrence of the conditions specified in the guarantee and which generate commission income.

Depending on the degree of riskiness, all active operations are divided as follows:

Standard (risk degree -- 0%);

Non-standard (degree of risk - from 1 to 20%);

Problematic (degree of risk - from 21 to 50%);

Doubtful (degree of risk - from 51 to 99%);

Hopeless (degree of risk -- 100%).

Depending on the nature of the placement of funds, one can distinguish:

Primary - direct placement of funds, for example, the issuance of an interbank loan;

Secondary, related to bank contributions to special funds, for example, to mandatory reserve funds, insurance funds, etc.;

Investment-- investment of bank funds in fixed assets, in investment portfolio securities, participation in the activities of other organizations, active operations.

According to the level of profitability, operations should be divided as follows:

Income-producing - high-income, low-income, stable or unstable income;

Non-income - interest-free loans, bills, issuance of funds, deductions to required reserves, etc.

According to the level of liquidity, active operations are divided into operations characterized by instant (cash operations), current (loan and settlement operations, up to 30 days) and long-term liquidity, as well as illiquid operations.

According to the type of currency, active operations are divided into operations in rubles and in foreign currency.

By term, urgent short-term (for 1 day, 7 days, 30 days, 3, 6, 9 and 12 months), long-term (over a year, up to 3 years, over 3 years) and open-ended active operations (on demand) are distinguished.

According to the regularity of implementation, active operations can be regular (permanent or performed with a certain frequency) and irregular (random, episodic).

Depending on the cash flow on the accounts, active operations are divided into related (balance sheet) and not related to the cash flow on the accounts (off-balance sheet).

1. 2 Legislative regulation of active operations of a commercial bank

The development of active operations of commercial banks based on considerations of liquidity, profitability and an acceptable allowable distribution of risks should take place with strict observance of existing legislative acts regulating the relevant aspects of banking activities that directly or indirectly affect the ability of banks to invest in those or other types of active operations. Such provisions may be in the nature of instructions binding on all banks regarding the conduct or further development of active operations in general or their individual types, permits for the implementation of certain types of operations, as well as specific legislative measures aimed at stimulating or restriction of certain types of operations by providing a centralized impact on the level of their profitability, risk or liquidity.

Legislative acts are usually understood as the provisions of the current banking legislation or regulation (if any), as well as individual decrees, instructions, instructions of banking control bodies that are binding on all commercial banks. Measures taken by banking control authorities can be aimed both at providing a direct impact on the conduct of certain operations by banks, and at creating preferential or discriminatory conditions. For example, for the provision of certain types of loans, investments in certain categories of securities, incentives may be provided for their growth or assessment in terms of liquidity. In other cases, these measures contribute to the rise in the cost of certain types of investments for banks. Thus, it would not be an exaggeration to say that banking regulation has a significant impact on the orientation of the active operations of commercial banks.

The charters of banks give a broad interpretation of operations, including active ones, that they can carry out within the limits of their legal status. The most common phenomenon was the definition in the charter of the goals of the bank's activities with the allocation of its most important areas. At the same time, the statutes contain a wording that allows banks to perform, along with the agreed ones, other operations to the extent that they are necessary for the normal conduct of the bank's activities. In general, we can say that the statutory restrictions on active operations are found, as a rule, only in specialized banking institutions(for example, savings, investment).

Legislative acts can be subdivided into regulating active operations in general, regulating their certain types or separate specific operations.

Various aspects of active lending operations by commercial banks are regulated by the following regulations of the Bank of Russia:

1. Instruction of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation No. 110-I dated January 16, 2004, as amended. dated 20.03.2006 "On the mandatory ratios of banks";

2. Regulation No. 54-P of August 31, 1998 “On the procedure for the provision (placement) of funds by credit institutions and their return (repayment)”;

3. Regulation No. 39-P of July 26, 1998 “On the procedure for calculating interest on operations related to the attraction and placement of funds by banks”;

4. Regulation No. 89-P dated September 24, 1999 “On the Procedure for Calculating Market Risks by Credit Institutions”;

5. Regulation No. 254-P dated March 26, 2004, as amended. dated March 20, 2006 “On the procedure for the formation of reserves by credit institutions for possible losses on loans, on loan and equivalent debts”.

Chapter 2. Analysis of active operations of a commercial bank of the Russian Federation

2.1 Analysis of active operations

The main purpose of the analysis of the bank's active operations is to identify areas of placement of the bank's resources that bring the greatest income.

The analysis of active operations involves the study and evaluation of:

1) condition and composition of assets;

2) asset quality;

3) efficient use of assets.

To implement these areas, the analysis of active operations must begin with the definition of changes in their structure. Changes in the structure can be analyzed using vertical and horizontal analysis.

Vertical analysis shows the structure of the bank's funds, when the amounts for individual items or sections are taken as a percentage of the balance sheet currency. The need for vertical analysis is due to the fact that:

1) the transition to relative indicators allows for inter-farm comparisons economic potential and performance of banks, differing in the amount of resources used and other volumetric indicators;

2) relative indicators, to a certain extent, smooth out the negative impact of inflationary processes, which make it difficult to compare indicators in dynamics.

In the course of horizontal analysis, absolute and relative changes in the values of various balance sheet items for a certain period are determined.

Vertical and horizontal analysis of the asset allows you to identify changes in the distribution of aggregated balance sheet items both in dynamics and in the internal structure of active operations, and determine which operations have increased (decreased) profitability, identify changes in priorities in banking. For this, such a table is compiled (Table 2.1).

Table 2.1

Analysis of the structure and dynamics of active operations

Operation types	At the beginning reporting period	On horseback reporting period	Deviations
				growth rate, %
Currency, coins and banking metals, travelers checks
Funds for cor. account with the NBU
Other funds in the NBU
Funds for cor. accounts in other banks
Deposits and loans in other banks
Securities in the bank's portfolio
Loans and financial leasing
Capital investments in subsidiaries and associates
Intangible assets
Money
Other assets
Total assets

The data in the table indicate that the amount of total assets amounted to 15,549 thousand rubles at the end of the reporting period. against 12701 thousand UAH. at the beginning of the reporting period, i.е. they increased by 2848 thousand rubles. or by 22.4%. The main share in active operations is occupied by loans granted to customers and financial leasing (57.1% and 58.1%), while there is a tendency for their further growth. IN reporting period they increased by 1,797 thousand rubles. or by 24.8%. In second place in active operations are investments in tangible assets (17.4% and 16.5%).

The role of interbank loans granted to other banks in the activities of the bank is growing. If their share in total assets at the beginning of the period amounted to 5.1%, then at the end of the reporting period - 8.1%, in absolute terms they increased by 611 thousand rubles. or 94.1%.

Other types of assets play an insignificant role in the bank's activities and range from 0.15 to 5.6%. The foregoing indicates that credit operations play a major role in the activity and are the main source of income for the bank.

When identifying the structure of placement of banking resources, the grouping method is used. The types of groupings depend on the goals of the analysis and are carried out according to the following criteria:

a) by types of operations;

b) by terms of placement;

c) by the degree of liquidity;

d) according to the degree of risk;

e) by the impact on the level of profitability of the bank.

In terms of types of operations, CB assets can be divided into 5 main categories:

1) cash and cash equivalents;

2) investments;

3) loan operations;

4) facilities and equipment;

5) settlement operations.

According to the timing of the placement of bank resources, the assets of the balance sheet of the CB are divided into current and urgent.

Current assets are demand assets that are returned at the first request of the creditor. Term assets - funds that are placed by the bank for a certain period.

The grouping of assets according to the degree of liquidity is carried out to determine deviations in balance sheet items that affect the stability of the bank.

In order for the bank to function stably, i.e. made scheduled and unscheduled payments from deposit accounts in a timely manner, performed operations to transfer funds from account to account, provided loans, etc., he must constantly monitor his liquidity.

Let's analyze the structure of assets in terms of liquidity for our example (Table 2.2).

Table 2.2

Analysis of the asset structure by liquidity level

Asset groups	At the beginning reporting period	On horseback reporting period	Deviations
				growth rate, %
1. Highly liquid assets
2. Liquid assets
Total working assets
3. Low liquid assets
4. Illiquid assets
5. Non-earning assets
6. Quasi assets
Total assets

commercial bank simulation

Highly liquid assets decreased over the period by 201 thousand rubles, their share in total assets fell by 3.4% (8.1-11.5) and by the end of the period was only 8.1%, i.е. their share is less than the recommended value (15%). The share of highly liquid assets in workers at the beginning. period - 15.65%, at the end of the period - 10.91%, which also does not correspond to the recommended value (20%).

Such a decrease is a negative fact: in the future, there may be problems with the calculations.

Liquid assets increased by 2414 thousand rubles, or by 30.66%. The share of liquid assets increased by 4.18% (66.17-61.99) and is optimal in relation to total assets (recommended value 61%-70%).

Working assets also increased by UAH 2213 thousand, or by 23.71%, and their share was 74.27% at the end of the period.

Those. the decrease in the share of highly liquid assets is entirely due to the growth in the share of liquid assets, thus the bank pays more attention to the growth of profitability than liquidity.

Low-liquid assets had the highest growth rate (59.1%) due to the growth of receivables.

Illiquid assets decreased by 34.2%, which indicates a decrease in overdue and doubtful debts on loans.

Consider the methodology for analyzing the liquidity of a commercial bank using an aggregated balance sheet.

The aggregated balance sheet method consists in comparing asset funds, grouped by their degree of liquidity and placed in descending order of liquidity, with liability liabilities, grouped by maturity and placed in descending order of maturity.

The structure of the aggregated balance sheet is presented in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3

Bank's aggregate balance sheet

	Balance asset items	Liabilities of the balance sheet
	Cash assets:	On-call obligations:
		demand deposits
	funds in the NBU	correspondent accounts of other banks
		Urgent obligations:
	funds on correspondent accounts in other banks	term deposits
	Securities:	received interbank loans
	government securities	issued debt obligations
	securities for sale	Other obligations:
	investment securities	accounts payable
	bills discounted by the bank	subordinated debt
		Main capital:
	short-term	statutory fund
	interbank	emission differences
	long-term	reserve fund, general reserves
	overdue	profit of previous years, capitalized dividends
	Other assets:	result of the current year
	investments in associates and subsidiaries	Additional capital:
	fixed assets and intangible assets	provisions for standard customer debt
	inventory items, receivables, other assets	provisions for standard debt of other banks
		results of the revaluation of the authorized capital
Balance (A1 + A5 + A10 + A15)	Balance (O1 + O4 + O8 + K1 + K7)

The method of analyzing the liquidity of the balance sheet is based on the principle of portfolio restrictions, which consists in observing certain ratios in assets and liabilities by assigning certain groups of assets to certain groups of liabilities. This is a necessary condition for ensuring a balanced liquidity of the bank.

2.2 Mathematical modeling of active operations

Active operations are used by commercial banks to make a profit and maintain the required level of liquidity, as well as to rationally allocate risks for certain types of operations. Active-passive operations - commission operations of banks, performed on behalf of customers.

The main goal of a commercial bank is to make a profit from investing the funds of depositors by assuming such a share of risk that does not jeopardize its ability to meet its obligations Iremadze E.O. // Optimization of the structure of the consumer loan portfolio of commercial bank URALSIB // Scientific Review. 2014. No. 4. pp. 352-354. . The relevance of this work is determined by the fact that against the background of a constant change in the level of inflation, there is a tendency to reduce the bank margin and the profitability of banking operations Iremadze E.O. // Ensuring efficiency credit process bank by developing a mathematical model // Science of the 21st century: questions, hypotheses, answers. 2014. No. 5. pp.106-109. .

Effective management of financial resources from the point of view of economic and mathematical modeling is the optimization of the bank's credit and deposit policy, i.e. modeling the optimal management of assets and liabilities in order to maximize profits and ensure the liquidity of the bank.

Consider, using the example of Sberbank OJSC, a dynamic optimized model of financial resources.

The portfolio previously included 20 typical assets. When building the model, data on the bank's liabilities from the turnover sheet of accounts were used accounting; data on weighted average interest rates on funds provided by the credit institution; instruction of the Bank of Russia "On the mandatory ratios of banks". Based on the above characteristics, an economic and mathematical model of the Sberbank asset portfolio was formulated. Target function:

Restrictions: Mandatory bank ratios established by the Bank of Russia; solvency restrictions:

(risk-adjusted assets) ?1926393260 (equity)

Instant liquidity restrictions:

Restrictions on current liquidity:

Long-term liquidity restrictions:

Bringing the CBR standards to a linear form will significantly speed up the solution of the problem variants. The results of the implementation of the algorithm for finding the optimal solution are presented in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4

When analyzing the resulting model, the largest share in the total structure of assets, under the established restrictions, was occupied by investments in the following assets:

individual entrepreneur loans with a maturity of over 3 years - 14.05%;

purchased debt, equity securities - 17.15%;

loans individuals with a maturity of up to 3 years - 14.34%;

loans to individuals with a maturity of up to a year - 8.29%;

loans to legal entities with a maturity of up to a year - 8.29%;

loans to individuals with a maturity of more than a year - 8.27%;

loans to individuals with a maturity of up to 30 days - 2.43%.

Such a distribution of funds between assets largely determined the return on assets and the structure of Sberbank's liabilities in the simulated period.

This approach makes it possible to secure the bank as much as possible when making decisions, both in terms of the formation of the resource base, and in terms of optimizing credit investments from liquidity imbalance and the formation of a negative cash flow for the bank as a whole.

To identify the main probabilities of approval of a credit transaction, a probit model was built. The dependent variable was the approval of a credit transaction. The value that the dependent variable takes can be interpreted as the probability of approval of the loan transaction: 1 in case of approval of the loan and 0 - rejection of the loan.

The probability of approval of a loan application is described by the probit model

where i are independent identically distributed random variables, the standard normal distribution function is used as the function F(z)

The probit model parameter estimates are usually obtained using the maximum likelihood method. The following assumptions were made to evaluate the model. The errors in the equation have a joint normal distribution with a zero expectation vector. The error covariance matrix has diagonal entries equal to one and zero covariance between errors. For the purpose of the study, a set of data on borrowers of the West Ural Bank of Sberbank of Russia was used. The dataset contains information on 219 Russian borrowers who applied for mortgage loan.

The set of variables used and their descriptive statistics are presented in Table. 2.5 and 2.6. Further, when evaluating the models, categorical variables, namely gender and overdue debt for more than 90 days, were recoded into a set of binary variables. 6.8% of borrowers out of 119 observations are overdue for more than 90 days. 69.5% of male borrowers applied for a mortgage loan. This set of observations represents borrowers aged 25 to 41 with an average interest rate of 12.37%.

Table 2.6

Definition of variables and descriptive statistics

Variables	Description	Standard deviation
	Client's age, years
	Number of co-borrowers, people
	Interest rate on the loan, %
	Mortgage loan amount, thousand rubles
	The amount of the down payment, thousand rubles.
	Estimated cost of purchased housing, thousand rubles.
	Monthly payment, rub.
	Monthly income, rub.
	Loan period, year
	LTV (Amount Ratio loan to appraisal cost)
	Borrower age square

Table 2.7

Definition and descriptive statistics on categorical variables

The income of the borrower largely determines his ability to repay mortgage obligations in the future, so this indicator plays an important role in explaining the likelihood of approval of a loan application.

It is noteworthy that out of 219 individuals, 1.8% have a monthly income of 10,000 to 19,999 rubles, and 98.2% have an income of more than 20 thousand rubles. On average, 41% of monthly income is used to pay off monthly mortgages.

Borrowers with a high LTV are not very motivated to fight to keep the loan at the slightest difficulty with servicing, because they have not invested much in their housing. Loans with a high LTV are highly risky, and lenders compensate for their risks with a high interest rate. The lower this ratio, the more likely it is that, when foreclosed, the proceeds from the sale of collateral will cover the costs of the lender on the loan.

Thus, this study reveals the main theoretical and methodological aspects of cash flow management in a commercial bank, which serves as an important direction in solving such an applied problem as improving the efficiency of a commercial bank.

Chapter 3. Problems and prospects for the development of active operations of Russian commercial banks

The most important problem in the development of active operations in our country is the participation of banks in investment activities. Now, when they say “investments”, they mean “banks”, and in vain. Currently, the volumes of investments made by banks are very small, mainly short-term investments.

So far, high inflation and significant risk in long-term investments have prevented banks from being active in this area. A decrease in inflation may create a fundamentally new situation, in which investments will become an important direction for investing funds for a bank. However, this will only happen if issues such as risk guarantees and return on investment are resolved.

Banks have very different investment strategies. They depend on the amount of funds (capabilities) of the bank, and on the place that the bank occupies in the market, as well as on a number of other factors. Experts of the Kommersant magazine, for example, divide banks (depending on certain priorities in strategic behavior) into three types:

I - banks controlling powerful cash flows, with a return on assets reaching 13-15% (with an average of 3% or less);

II - banks excluded from the most profitable credit lines, forced to expand the scope of investment interests in the hope of reviving the economy;

III - the most common type of banks, with a focus on the trading sector and operations in the domestic financial market.

An analysis of the situation in the investment loans market allows us to come to certain conclusions:

1. Many banks are stepping up their activities in the field of investment lending, seeing this as a guarantee of financial well-being in the revival of the country's economy.

2. Most banks prefer medium-term investment lending for 1-2 years, but projects are also being financed for longer periods, up to 5-6 years.

3. There is a specialization of banks in certain areas of the economy, or, when penetrating into a large number of areas, for specific projects. Credits are provided mainly to export-oriented areas - oil, timber, metallurgical, chemical and petrochemical, as well as extractive industry enterprises, conversion programs and quick payback construction.

4. Loans are issued on average at 15-25% in foreign currency.

5. The real creditworthiness of commercial banks does not allow them to lend to significant projects.

6. Project collateral takes various forms - mainly shares of credited enterprises, pledge of fixed assets, guarantees of third legal entities, liquid real estate and deposits placed in a bank.

Despite the very difficult conditions in which Russian commercial banks have to work, the new credit system is developing and is increasingly adapting to the market. Russian commercial banks are increasingly actively developing their branch network, opening branches and representative offices both in various regions of Russia and abroad.

Providing commercial banks with greater independence and rights should in the future lead to the development of their investment activity.

According to CBR experts, the country's economy has a tendency to increase the efficiency of long-term investments and reduce the profitability of short-term financial transactions.

In practical work, when analyzing the prospects for the development of the credit and investment market, banks proceed from two main current macroeconomic problems: a high inflationary environment and structural adjustment. All other problems, including the financial, industrial tax and resource policy of the state, follow from these two. Associated problems: high political risk, resulting in a lack of internal and external resources for investment, the appropriate quality of investment projects, as well as personnel issues.

The problem of attracting investments in the real sector of the economy is not limited to providing an infusion of a certain amount of money. It is important to create conditions for the interaction of financial, industrial, insurance, venture and other capitals in this area and to ensure the formation and development of market mechanisms, their functioning, mutual interest and mutual support.

One of the effective ways to solve the problem of investment is the creation of financial and industrial groups, holdings. Their organization will help increase the interest of all participating structures in long-term investment.

Reasons for the slow integration of banking and industrial capital in Russia: economic instability; lack of effective mechanisms for the interaction of banking and industrial capital in the new social conditions; political instability; imperfection of the legislation; multidirectional interests of banks and industrial enterprises; lack of risk insurance mechanisms.

Conclusion

Summing up this work, it should be noted that active operations are operations through which banks place the resources at their disposal in order to obtain the necessary income and ensure liquidity.

Although the main goal of a commercial bank is to make a profit, they cannot invest all their funds only in highly profitable operations (such as lending to clients), since when performing active operations, such banks must simultaneously ensure the timely return of funds raised to their owners by maintaining a certain level of liquidity , reasonably allocate risks by type of investment, comply with various legislative norms, instructions and instructions of banking control authorities, as well as the requirements of the government's credit policy.

Thus, asset management implies the need to manage the bank's liquidity, the profitability of its operations and all types of risks that arise when working in the relevant financial markets.

Profitability and liquidity are two fundamental principles that reflect the essence of active operations inherent in the bank as a commercial enterprise that mainly uses borrowed funds.

The structure of Russian commercial banks' assets is dominated by two main items: loans to the economy and investments in government securities. In addition, a significant part of the assets is represented by interbank loans.

Recently, commercial banks have faced a sharp increase in competition from numerous specialized credit institutions, as well as the largest industrial corporations that have created their own financial companies. The aggravation of competition was facilitated by the mitigation of direct government restrictions ("deregulation") in the credit sector. Competition encourages banks to search for new areas of activity, attracting additional customers who are offered new types of services. The "swap" operations are especially widespread.

Lending has become the main type of active operations of a commercial bank. Moreover, the proportion of short-term loans has grown tremendously. This is largely due to the high level of risk and uncertainty in the post-crisis environment.

In choosing approaches to asset allocation policy, it is not dogmatic attitudes that are important, but a systematic analysis of general economic dynamics. When conducting an analysis, the management and experts of banks should take into account such factors as the level of business activity in society, ups and downs in both the demand for loans and the supply of deposits, features monetary policy authorities at a particular stage, the situation in all segments of the financial market.

It can be concluded that the development of specific schemes of active operations implies flexibility, non-routine and prompt response to changes in the micro- and macro-environment of a commercial bank.

Russian commercial banks have not yet reached the level of active operations by foreign banks, but in order to increase the level of use of active operations of Russian commercial banks, you can use the experience of foreign countries applicable to our conditions.

Thus, commercial banks still remain the center of the financial system, concentrating the deposits of the government, business circles and millions of individuals. Through active operations, commercial banks open access to their funds to various types of borrowers: individuals, companies and the government. Banking transactions facilitate the movement of goods and services from producers to consumers, and the financial activities of the government. They provide a share of the means of circulation, and themselves act as a means of regulating the amount of money in circulation. Active operations clearly demonstrate that the national system of commercial banks plays an important role in the functioning of the economy.

The ability of the commercial banking system to carry out its activities skillfully and in full accordance with the needs and economic goals of the state largely depends on the effectiveness of its management. The management of any organized activity must be qualified, and the operations of commercial banks are no exception. And if we want to banking system was growing steadily, adaptable and able to meet the needs of society, commercial banks must conduct their operations with the necessary care, especially now in post-crisis conditions.

List of used literature

1. Federal Law No. 17-FZ dated February 3, 1996 “On Banks and Banking Activities”. Change 07/28/2004.

2. Instruction of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation No. 110-I dated January 16, 2004, as amended. dated 20.03.2006 "On the mandatory ratios of banks".

3. Regulation No. 54-P of August 31, 1998 “On the procedure for the provision (placement) of funds by credit institutions and their return (repayment)”.

4. Regulation No. 39-P dated July 26, 1998 “On the procedure for calculating interest on operations related to the attraction and placement of funds by banks”.

5. Regulation No. 89-P of September 24, 1999 “On the Procedure for Calculating Market Risks by Credit Institutions”.

6. Regulation No. 254-P dated March 26, 2004, as amended. dated March 20, 2006 "On the procedure for the formation by credit institutions of reserves for possible losses on loans, on loan and equivalent debts."

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16. Klyuchnikov M.V. Economic and statistical analysis of the structure and dynamics of indicators of passive and active operations of a commercial bank // Finance and credit.-2014.-№12.-p.21-23.

17. Markova O.M. Commercial banks and their operations.- M.: UNITI, 2015.-288p.

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