Different houses, different cars, different amounts of money. What is the concept of economic inequality? What are the characteristics of developed countries and developing countries?

What is economic inequality?

Between developed and developing countries there is whole line differences. In almost any city you can see various houses, cars and people engaged in various activities. These differences can be indicators of economic inequality, which distinguishes individuals or entire population groups in terms of their wealth, assets or income. Although most often you can see differences in economic level in one's city, economic inequality can also occupy a broader scale, affecting entire peoples and nations.

Two types of countries

Economically, the world has been divided into two types - developed countries and developing countries. These two categories are based primarily on per capita income, which is calculated by taking the total national income for a country and dividing it by the number of people living in the country. For example, if a small country has a total national income of $800,000 and a population of 20,000, then the per capita income is $40.

The most important characteristics of developing countries

Least developed (developing) countries have the following common features:

• Low standard of living. Among the reasons: slow growth rates of national income, stagnant growth rates of per capita income, concentration of income in the hands of a few individuals and uneven distribution national income, poor health care, low literacy rates and insufficient educational opportunities.
• Low level of labor productivity due to lack of technology, capital, etc.
• High population growth rates. Underdeveloped countries have higher population growth rates. Mortality rates are also high compared to developed countries.
• High and rising levels of unemployment and underemployment. Some work less than they could. Part-time workers also include those who usually work full-time but who do not have suitable vacancies. Disguised unemployment is a feature of developing countries.
• Significant dependence on agricultural production. The vast majority of people, almost three quarters, work in rural areas. Likewise, three-quarters of the workforce is employed in agriculture. The contribution of agriculture to the gross national product of developing countries is very high compared to developed countries.
• Dependence on the primary product. Most economies from less developed countries are focused on primary production rather than secondary activities. These commodities constitute the main exports to other countries.
• Dependency in international relations. The highly unequal distribution of economic and political power between rich and poor countries is evident not only in the dominant power rich countries have to control international trade, but also in their ability to often dictate the terms in which technology, foreign aid, and private capital are channeled to the needs of developing countries.
• Dualistic economics. Almost all developed countries have dualistic economies. One of them is market economy; The other is economics subsistence farming. One is in and near the city; The other is in the countryside.
• Wealth distribution. Inequality in wealth and asset distribution is a major cause of unequal income distribution in rural areas. The highest concentration of assets is on the industrial front in the hands of large business houses.
• Lack of natural resources: fertile lands, clean water and mineral resources, iron, coal, etc.
• Lack of entrepreneurship and initiative. One more characteristic feature underdeveloped countries is the lack of entrepreneurial prospects. Entrepreneurship is slowing down social system, which denies the possibilities of creativity.
• Inefficient capital equipment and technology.

Developed nations

The first economic category is developed countries, which can generally be classified as those that are more industrialized and have a higher level of per capita income. To be considered a developed country, a country typically has a per capita income of around US$12,000. Additionally, most developed countries have an average per capita income of approximately $38,000.

As of 2010, the list of developed countries included the USA, Canada, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Australia, New Zealand, Scandinavia, Singapore, Taiwan, Israel, Western European countries and some Arab states. In 2012, the combined population of these countries was about 1.3 billion people. This figure is relatively stable and is estimated to grow at around 7% over the next 40 years.

In addition to high per capita incomes and stable population growth rates, developed countries are also characterized by resource use patterns. In developed countries, people consume large amounts of natural resources per person and are estimated to consume almost 88% of the world's resources.

Developing Nations

The first economic category is developed countries, and developing countries are, accordingly, the second economic category. This broad concept includes countries that are less industrialized and have lower per capita income. Developing countries can be classified into more developed or less developed countries.

Moderately developed countries have an approximate per capita income of between US$1,000 and US$12,000. The average per capita income for moderately developed countries is around US$4,000. The list of moderately developed countries is very long and amounts to about 4.9 billion people. Some of the more recognizable countries that are considered moderately developed include Mexico, China, Indonesia, Jordan, Thailand, Fiji and Ecuador. In addition to them are the states of Central America, South America, North and Southern Africa, Southeast Asia, Eastern Europe, former USSR and many Arab states.

Less developed countries are the second type of developing countries. They have the lowest income, with a total per capita income of approximately less than US$1,000. In many of these countries, the average per capita income is even lower, around US$500. Countries listed as less developed are in eastern, western and central Africa, India and other countries in southern Asia. In 2012, these countries had approximately 0.8 billion people living on very little income.

Even though the income range is quite wide, almost 3 billion people still live on less than $2 a day. Can you imagine living on less than $2 a day? This would be a very difficult task for most of us. In addition to low income levels, developing countries are also characterized by high population growth rates. It is estimated to increase by 44% over the next 40 years. By 2050, it is predicted that more than 86% of the population will live in developing countries.

Difference between developed countries and developing countries

The classification of countries is based on economic status (GDP, GNP, per capita income, industrialization, standard of living, etc.) Developed countries refer to sovereign states whose economies have advanced significantly and have a large technological infrastructure compared to other nations. Countries with low industrialization and low human development are called developing countries. Some states provide a free, healthy and prosperous atmosphere, while others lack this.

Developed and developing countries of the world: comparative table

There are developed, developing and transition countries. What is their main difference? The main features of developed and developing countries are presented in the table:

The developed countries	Developing countries
Availability of effective level of industrialization and individual income	A developing country is a country with a slow rate of industrialization and low per capita income
Low unemployment rate	Poverty and high unemployment
Mortality rates, including infant mortality, and birth rates are low, and life expectancy is high.	High levels of infant mortality, mortality and fertility, as well as low life expectancy
Good standard and living conditions	Low standard and satisfactory living conditions
Developed manufacturing sector, service sector and high industrial growth.	Dependence on developed countries. Developed agricultural sector of the economy
Equal distribution of income and efficient use factors of production	Unequal distribution of income, factors of production are used inefficiently

Countries in terms of economy and industrialization

Developed countries are countries that are developing in terms of economy and industrialization. They are also called first and self-sufficient. Human development statistics rank countries based on their development. These states have a high standard of living, high GDP, high child welfare, healthcare, excellent medical services, transport, communications and educational institutions.

They provide improved housing and living conditions, industrial, infrastructural and technological development, and higher per capita income. These countries earn more income from the industrial sector compared to the service sectors because they are post-industrial economies. Along with others, the list of developed countries includes:

• Australia.
• Canada.
• France.
• Germany.
• Italy.
• Japan.
• Norway.
• Sweden.
• Switzerland.
• USA.

Countries that are experiencing initial levels of industrial development along with low per capita income are known as developing countries. These countries are classified as third world countries. Economically developed and developing countries differ from each other in many ways, including a low human development index, lack of a healthy and safe living environment, low gross domestic product, high illiteracy rates, poor educational, transport, communication and health services, unsustainable state debt, unequal income distribution, high mortality and fertility rates, malnutrition of both mother and infant, high infant mortality rate, poor living conditions, high unemployment and poverty. These include states such as:

• China.
• Colombia.
• India.
• Kenya.
• Pakistan.
• Sri Lanka.
• Thailand.
• Türkiye.
• UAE, etc.

Key Differences

Countries that are independent and prosperous are known as developed countries. States that are about to begin industrialization are called developing. The former have a higher per capita income, a high literacy rate, and good infrastructure. They are constantly improving health and safety conditions that do not exist in developing countries.

The economies of developed and developing countries may have similar features, but there are more obvious differences. There is a big difference between such states. Developed countries have a high Human Development Index, they have proven themselves on all fronts and have made themselves sovereign through their own efforts, while developing countries are still trying to achieve the same with varying degrees of success.

Socio-cultural characteristics

Different types of social groups live in the same country. They differ on the basis of religion, castes and creeds, cultures and customs, languages ​​and beliefs, etc. These social and cultural values ​​have a profound impact on the economy of a nation. Developing countries may have dissonant social models in their economic life. Employment opportunities or activities exist in urban areas while the traditional method of production is used in rural areas. Job opportunities are less than required. Consequently, these countries have dualistic economies, which leads to various problems in formulating economic policy.

Problems of developing countries: poverty, militarization

Poverty means low income, little investment, less industrialization. In certain industrial and technological areas, developing countries achieve rapid growth provided that economic and geopolitical stability is achieved.

Militarization also prevents sustainable prosperity and improvement. Some developing countries are facing problems of terrorism and threats to national security due to border disputes. They spend billions of dollars on modern military equipment, resulting in reduced funds for development and innovation. Examples are India, China, Vietnam.

The role of education

Speaking about the problems of developed and developing countries, we should not forget about the importance of education for the future of a particular nation. An important feature of a developing country is its illiteracy. Although efforts are being made to eradicate it, the problem of unskilled labor remains acute to this day.

Kofi Annan, who served as UN Secretary-General from 1997 to 2006, defined a developed country as one that enables its citizens to live and enjoy life in a safe environment. Accordingly, the picture looks somewhat different for developing countries and their residents.

Assessment of the development of countries by various international organizations The United Nations Statistics Division, however, has not established strict rules for dividing countries into “developed” and “developing”. These definitions serve only for greater convenience in collecting and processing statistical data and do not provide an assessment of the overall historical development of a country or region. The UN has developed the Human Development Index, a system that includes several fundamental indicators for assessing a country’s development. Namely: standard of living (gross national income, per capita income and others economic indicators), the level of literacy of the population, the level of education and education, the average life expectancy in the country. In addition to the UN, the IMF (International Monetary Fund) is involved in assessing the development of countries. Its criteria for assessing the development of a country or region are: per capita income, expanded range of exports, level of integration with the world financial system. If the lion's share of exports falls on one product - for example, oil, then this country can no longer get first place in the IMF ranking. The World Bank, created specifically for financial assistance and support to developing countries, divides all countries into 4 categories based on income level with gross national income per capita. Measurements are carried out in US dollars. Developing countriesToday, developing countries include such giants as the rapidly developing BRIC countries - Brazil, Russia, India and China. And also the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, Africa. Among them there is their own classification.
New industrial countries. They have more than 7% annual GDP growth due to cheap labor and favorable geographical location, modernization of the economy and the use of new technologies. The following countries belong to this class: Hong Kong, South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Malaysia, Thailand, India, Chile, Cyprus, Tunisia, Turkey, Indonesia, Philippines, southern China. More recently, Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan, along with Cyprus, Malta and Slovenia, began to be considered “developed countries.” Oil-producing countries. The per capita GDP of these countries is equal to the GDP of developed countries. But the one-sided economy does not allow them to be classified as developed countries. Least developed countries. They have an outdated concept economic development, low GDP, low literacy, high mortality. These countries include most countries in Africa, Oceania and Latin America. Countries with economies in transition The post-socialist camp of the countries of Eastern Europe (Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia), as well as the Baltic countries (Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia), is difficult to classify as both developed and developing countries. For them and several other states, the term “countries with economies in transition” is used.

Asian countries are very different in terms of their level of development. This region is home to Japan, the second-largest country in the world (after the United States) in terms of economic potential. All sectors of the economy are well developed in the state, but the leaders are high-tech mechanical engineering and metalworking, electronics production, automobile and shipbuilding, and the chemical industry. In terms of the share of spending on science, Japan occupies a leading position among developed countries. And in terms of the number of scientists, Germany, Great Britain, and France combined dominate.

The poorest countries on the planet include Nepal, Bhutan, Afghanistan, Cambodia

India and China occupy a special place in Asia. In recent decades, these giants have had some of the highest levels of economic development, and in terms of gross domestic product they are among the group of world leaders. And although they still lag significantly behind developed countries in terms of GDP per capita, the achievements of these countries in recent years are impressive.

Third world countries - who is on the list and why

High-tech industries are also developing significantly here, and China, in addition, has its own manned space program, is a world leader in coal and iron ore mining, steel smelting, television production, and the like.

Significant successes have recently been achieved by the so-called asian tigers(South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong (formerly Hong Kong), and Malaysia

These once backward countries, thanks to the successful modernization of their own economies, are now bringing modern cars, consumer electronics, clothing and other high-quality products to the world market.

The Gulf countries stand out as a separate group. This region, together with Russia, accounts for the lion's share of proven oil and gas reserves. It was the attraction of investment in the oil and gas industry that allowed some of the Gulf countries (Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar) to approach the most developed countries in terms of living standards

Plays a major role in the economy of most Asian countries. Agriculture. Due to the enormous size of Asia and the diversity of natural and climatic conditions, a variegated structure of agricultural production has formed here: from reindeer husbandry and forestry in the north to the cultivation of exotic tropical crops in the south.

However, for high density population, significant mountain ranges and deserts in Asia, there is a very acute problem of shortage of land suitable for agricultural use. In addition, the achievements of agricultural science and modern technology are very poorly used in agriculture in the countries of the region. Production here is carried out mainly using archaic methods and therefore its efficiency is low. Consequently, a number of countries in the region periodically face the problem of providing their own population with food

Economic-geographical typology of countries of the modern world

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Developing countries can be divided into six subgroups.

The first subgroup is formed by key countries - India, Brazil and Mexico, which have very large natural, human and economic potential and in many respects are leaders of the developing world. These three countries produce almost as much industrial products, the same as all other developing countries combined. But their per capita GDP is significantly lower than in economically developed countries.

The second subgroup includes some developing countries that have also reached a relatively high level of socio-economic development and have a per capita GDP indicator exceeding 1 thousand dollars. Most of these countries are in Latin America (Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, Venezuela, etc.), but they are also in Asia and North America.

The third subgroup includes newly industrialized countries (NICs), specializing in a number of labor-intensive manufacturing industries. In the 80s and 90s. XX century They made such a leap that they were nicknamed the “Asian Tigers.” The “first echelon” of such countries included the Republic of Korea, Singapore, Taiwan and Hong Kong. The “second echelon” usually includes Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia.

The fourth subgroup is formed by oil-exporting countries. Thanks to the influx of “petrodollars,” per capita GDP reaches from 10 to 20 thousand dollars. These are primarily the Gulf countries (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, United United Arab Emirates, Iran), as well as Libya, Brunei and some other countries.

The fifth, largest, subgroup includes most of the “classical” developing countries. These are countries lagging behind in their development, with a per capita GDP of less than 1 thousand dollars. They are dominated by a rather backward mixed economy with strong feudal remnants. Most of these countries are in Africa, but they also exist in Asia and Latin America. This subgroup includes the states of concessional development of capitalism, which have become rich from the development of tourism (Jamaica, Bohamy, etc.).

The sixth subgroup is formed by approximately 40 countries (with a total population of 600 million people), which according to the UN classification belong to the least developed countries. They are dominated by consumer agriculture, there is almost no manufacturing industry, 2/3 of the adult population is illiterate, and the average per capita GDP is $100-300 per year. This subgroup includes countries such as Bangladesh, Nepal, Afghanistan, Mali, Ethiopia, Haiti, etc.

Inclusion of post-socialist countries with transition economies into this two-member typology presents certain difficulties. In terms of their socio-economic indicators, most countries of Eastern Europe and the Baltic countries, of course, are economically developed. Among the CIS countries there are both economically developed and countries occupying an intermediate position between developed and developing. China, which has its own characteristics, both in its political system and in its socio-economic development, occupies the same contradictory position.

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The group of developing countries (less developed, underdeveloped) includes states with market economies and low levels of economic development. Of the 182 member countries of the International Monetary Fund, 121 are classified as developing. Despite the significant number of these countries, and the fact that many of them are characterized by large populations and vast territories, they account for about 40% of world GDP, their share in the world export 26%.

They represent the periphery of the world economic system. These include African countries, countries Asia-Pacific region - Asia-Pacific (except Japan, Australia, New Zealand, the “dragon” countries of Southeast Asia and the Asian CIS countries), countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. Subgroups of developing countries are also distinguished, in particular, a subgroup of Asia-Pacific countries (West Asia plus Iran, China, countries of East and South Asia - all other countries in the region), a subgroup of African countries (sub-Saharan Africa minus Nigeria and South Africa - all other African countries beyond with the exception of Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Nigeria, Tunisia).

The entire group of developing countries is very heterogeneous. Developing countries include, in particular, those states that, in many indicators of the level and quality of life, are higher than any developed country (United Arab Emirates, Kuwait or the Bahamas). GDP per capita and the volume of government social spending here correspond to or even exceed those of the G7 countries. In the group of developing countries, there are medium-sized states with a good level of economic and social infrastructure, there are also a significant number of countries with extremely backward national economies, the majority of whose population is below the poverty line, corresponding, according to the UN methodology, to one dollar of expenditure per day for each inhabitant. It also cannot be said that all of them are economies of the agricultural or agrarian-industrial type.

Over the past decade, emerging markets have become the main engine of global economic growth. According to HSBC, 19 emerging economies will be among the top 30 by 2050 largest economies, and their specific gravity in the world economy will exceed that which the countries of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) have today.

Emerging markets already account for 40% of global GNP, attracting 37% of global foreign investment.

In 2011, their growth, in contrast to the stagnating OECD countries, continued confidently. China has overtaken Japan to become the second largest economy in the world. Foreign direct investment in India reached a record $80 billion. Brazilian Petrobras has become one of the largest in the world oil company, having received a record amount of $67 billion last year during the placement of shares on the market.

An increasing number of transnational companies are entering these markets due to the growing prosperity of the population. In Asia, representatives of the middle class already make up 60% of the total population (1.9 billion people). China in 2010 became the main market for the sale of cars, and the richest person in the world is a Mexican. Rapid economic growth occurs in an environment of weak deficits, low debt levels and controlled inflation.

But there is another, more attractive side that attracts companies from OECD countries to emerging economies: explosive innovation. First, emerging economies are already outperforming other countries in terms of development in high-value-added and high-tech sectors, and second, companies from OECD countries are increasingly re-importing innovations from emerging economies.

According to the UN, about 21.5 thousand large transnational companies operate in these countries. Some of them, such as the Mexican cement company Cernex, the Indian outsourcing company Infosys, and the Chinese battery manufacturer BYD, have already become leaders in their sectors. China has become the main supplier in the global telecommunications market, where Huawei ranks alongside the Swedish Ericsson. In 2008

The developed countries

this company has registered more patents than any other company in the world, and in 2009 it took second place, behind Japan's Panasonic.

In the field of telecommunications, half of the world's top ten companies are currently made up of companies from emerging economies.

Brazil's Embraer has made a leap into aircraft production by adopting a business model developed by others. Indian Tata sells cars 75% cheaper than its European competitors. The cost of developing medical equipment in the Chinese Mindray is 10% cheaper than that of European companies. Kenya's Safaricom's mobile banking services, as well as Indian outsourcing companies TCS and Wipr, are making a significant difference in the market.

Even the digital world has not remained outside the influence of countries with developing economies. Facebook could be Latin American because one of its creators is Brazilian. In terms of its market capitalization ($45 billion in 2011), the Chinese Internet company Tencent Holdings is the third largest in the world. The company's shareholder is the multinational South African company Naspers. Both companies invest in startups, but not in the US, but in other emerging markets. In 2000, they invested US$700 million in Russia's Mail.ru. The Russian company Digital Sky Technologies, which owns Mail.ru, is involved in financing US startups such as Facebook, Zynga and Groupon.

All of these multinational companies from developing countries demonstrate not only explosive innovation, but also high prudence, which makes them extremely dangerous competitors. And they are quickly gaining strength: in 2010, according to the American Booz & Company, South Korean Samsung entered the top ten global companies in terms of investment in R&D. Israel has created 4 thousand start-up companies, becoming the second largest number of companies listed on the NASDAQ stock exchange in the world.

As a result, there is a noticeable downward trend in R&D spending among multinational companies in OECD countries. They have already opened about 100 research centers in countries with developing economies, mainly in China and India. GE's research and development center in India is the largest in the world. Cisco has invested a billion US dollars in creating another one. Microsoft's largest research center outside the United States is located in Beijing. IBM has more employees in India than in the US, and 12% of Germany's Siemens' 30,000 research staff is based in Asia.

In order to understand how quickly the global balance of power is changing, it is enough to say that in 1990 more than 95% of R&D was carried out in developed countries, and ten years later this share dropped to 76%. Currently, about 40% of the total number of researchers in the world is concentrated in developing economies. According to UNESCO, China, which currently spends more than 100 billion US dollars (2.5% of GDP) on R&D, will soon surpass the United States and Europe in the number of researchers.

In the coming decade, emerging economies will not only claim the lion's share of global growth, but will also be the source of much cost-effective innovation. By 2020, the geography of the innovation environment, as well as the well-being of peoples, will experience a significant change in the balance of power.

11. Post-socialist states: main features of socio-economic development. EU member countries. Countries outside the EU.

Countries with “transition economies” (post-socialist) and socialist countries. Previously, they were all countries of the socialist camp. The system of countries with economies in transition is quite numerous. This includes 13 states of Eastern Europe, 15 states of the former USSR, as well as China and Vietnam. In the process of transition from an administrative-command economy to a market economy, approximately three groups of countries were formed, differing from each other in their starting capabilities for implementing reforms, the pace and nature of their implementation, and the results achieved.

The first group of countries is represented by Poland, Hungary, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Slovenia and the Baltic countries. This group of countries is characterized by a short (by historical standards) existence of a planned economy - about 40 years, and in its less rigid version.

The starting opportunities for this group of states were very favorable. The economy retained elements private property and private initiative, relative balance National economy or a small amount of imbalances, the readiness of the population to accept the values ​​of a market economy. The relatively rapid and successful progress towards a market economy is also due to close economic and historical ties with Western Europe. The reforms were carried out as a result of a combination of evolutionary and radical options and transformations. The predominantly evolutionary nature of reforms is characteristic of Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Croatia. Radical reform methods were used in Poland and, to a lesser extent, in the Czech Republic. As a result of the transformations, a single-sector model of a transition economy was formed. There has been a relatively rapid and successful progress towards a market economy. The economic decline in most countries of the region amounted to 20-25% of GDP and extended over the period 1989-1993. In 1994-1995 Economic recovery began in the countries of the region. Average annual GDP growth rates in 1995-1997 averaged 3-5%.

In terms of socio-economic development, almost all countries of Central and Eastern Europe are classified as moderately developed. GDP per capita is: in the Czech Republic - 11.9 thousand dollars, Slovakia - 8.7 thousand dollars, Hungary - 7.8 thousand dollars, Poland - 7.1 thousand dollars. The named countries are in two - three times inferior to countries Western Europe by average per capita GDP.

The second group is represented by Russia, other CIS member countries, as well as Bulgaria, Romania, Yugoslavia, Albania, and Mongolia. The former USSR is characterized by the long existence of the administrative-command system (more than 70 years) in its most rigid version. The economy was characterized by maximum nationalization of the means of production, total regulation of economic activity, suppression of any attempts at private initiative and private property, and an extreme degree of monopolization of economic activity. In addition, egalitarian tendencies and dependency have spread in society. One of the positive results of the Soviet era for all the republics that were part of the USSR was the relatively high level of qualifications of the workforce. As a result of the transformations, a single-sector model of a transition economy was formed. Progress towards the market is fraught with considerable difficulties and is carried out much more slowly than in the countries of the first group. Reduction in GDP in all countries compared to 1990-1991 levels. was very strong: it ranged from 30% to 60%. In terms of industrial production, it ranged from 10% (Uzbekistan) to 80% (Georgia). Stabilization trends in most CIS member countries strengthened in the second half of the 90s. Since 1997, only Russia, Ukraine and Tajikistan remained in the group of countries where there was no GDP growth. Today, GDP per capita in Russia is a little over 5 thousand dollars, in Ukraine - more than 2 thousand dollars.

The third group of countries is represented by the countries of East Asia (China, Vietnam). The dominance of the planned economy in this region lasted 25-30 years.

The Chinese economy was characterized by an extremely low level of development productive forces, underdeveloped industry, very low standard of living of the population (by the time the reforms began, no less than 1/4 of China's population were malnourished and lived below the poverty line). However, the transition to the market was facilitated by the fact that heavy industry and the military-industrial complex constituted a relatively small share of the country's economy, facilitating the reorientation of their industry to the needs of the consumer market.

In addition, the high work ethic of the population and the wealthy Chinese diaspora, which invested capital in the development of the country's economy, played a major positive role. Economic reform in China dates back to December 1978. The country maintains the traditional for socialist countries politic system with the Communist Party's monopoly on power.

Economic transformations in the PRC have never been carried out using “shock therapy” methods. At the same time, China, unlike all other countries with economies in transition, managed to avoid a transformational recession. Today, China's GDP per capita is $4.1 thousand. China's share in the gross world product is 10%, versus 20% for the United States and 2% for Russia.

Vietnam is still a centrally planned economy with a small but rapidly growing free market. The state belongs to the pear of low-income countries - no more than $100.

II. Components of the transition process

The main components of the transition process were identified relatively early. They are:

Liberalization. The process of freeing most prices to be determined by free markets and reducing trade barriers that cut off the link to price structures in market economies around the world.

Macroeconomic stabilization. Primarily, it is the process by which - after an initial surge in inflation following liberalization and the release of pent-up demand - inflation is brought under control and reduced over time. This work requires a disciplined approach to the government budget and money and credit growth (that is, discipline in the conduct of fiscal and monetary policy), as well as the achievement of a stable balance of payments.

Reorganization and privatization. The process of creating a viable financial sector and reforming businesses in these countries so they can produce goods that can be sold in free markets and making them private.

Legal and institutional reform. These reforms are needed to reorient the role of the state in these countries, establish the rule of law and implement appropriate pro-competition policies.

It should be taken into account that some of these countries joined the EU in 2004 and 2007 and de jure these countries began to be classified as developed countries, although de facto they are countries with emerging markets.

The classification of the People's Republic of China is particularly difficult, since the construction of capitalism, and therefore market relations, in the PRC occurs under the leadership of the Communist Party of China (CCP). The Chinese economy is a symbiosis of a planned socialist economy and free enterprise. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) classifies China, like India, as a developing Asian country.

The countries of Central and Eastern Europe, the Baltic countries and some Balkan countries are characterized by an initially higher level of socio-economic development; radical and successful implementation of reforms (“velvet revolutions”); expressed desire to join the EU. The outsiders in this group are Albania, Bulgaria and Romania. The leaders are the Czech Republic and Slovenia.

Former Soviet republics, excluding the Baltic countries, since 1993

united into the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). The collapse of the USSR led to the severance of economic ties that had been developing for decades between enterprises of the former republics. The one-time abolition of state pricing (in conditions of shortage of goods and services), the spontaneous privatization of the largest export-oriented state-owned enterprises, the introduction of a parallel currency (US dollar) and the liberalization of foreign trade activities led to a sharp drop in production. GDP in Russia decreased by almost 2 times. Hyperinflation reached 2000% or more per year. There was a sharp drop in exchange rate national currency, state budget deficit, sharp stratification of the population with absolute impoverishment of the bulk of it. An oligarchic version of capitalism was formed without the creation of a middle class. Loans from the IMF and other international organizations were used to “patch holes” in the state budget and were stolen uncontrollably. Carrying out financial stabilization through budget restrictions and a policy of restriction or compression of the money supply (growth interest rates) gradually reduced inflation, but had serious social losses (unemployment, increased mortality, street children, etc.). The experience of “shock therapy” has shown that the mere introduction of private property and market relations does not guarantee the creation of an effective economy.

The European Union (European Union, EU) is an association of 27 European states that have signed the EU Treaty (Maastricht Treaty). The EU is a unique international entity: it combines the characteristics of an international organization and a state, but formally is neither one nor the other. The Union is not a subject of public international law, but has the authority to participate in international relations and plays a major role in them.

Requirements for applicants to join the EU

To join the European Union, a candidate country must meet the Copenhagen criteria. The Copenhagen Criteria are criteria for countries to join the European Union, which were adopted in June 1993 at the European Council meeting in Copenhagen and confirmed in December 1995 at the European Council meeting in Madrid. The criteria require that the state respect democratic principles, the principles of freedom and respect for human rights, as well as the principle of the rule of law (Article 6, Article 49 of the Treaty on European Union). Also, the country must have a competitive market economy, and must recognize general rules and EU standards, including commitment to the goals of political, economic and monetary union.

EU Member States (27)

Austria, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Republic of Cyprus, Slovakia, Great Britain, Latvia, Slovenia, Hungary, Lithuania, Finland

Germany, Luxembourg, France, Greece, Malta, Czech Republic, Denmark, Netherlands, Sweden, Ireland, Poland, Estonia

Preferences for developing and least developed countries.

In order to promote the economic development of developing and least developed countries, the Common System of Tariff Preferences is applied within the customs union.

Article 7 of the Agreement on Unified Customs Tariff Regulation dated January 25, 2008 provides for the application of a rate of import customs duties in the amount of 75% of the rates of import customs duties UCT in relation to goods imported into the common customs territory of the member states of the Customs Union that simultaneously satisfy the following conditions:

these goods originate from developing countries that are users of the unified system of tariff preferences of the customs union;

These goods are included in the list of goods originating from developing countries and least developed countries, for which tariff preferences are provided when imported into the common customs territory of the member states of the customs union.

In addition, the same article provides for the application of zero rates of import customs duties in relation to goods that:

come from the least developed countries that are users of the common system of tariff preferences of the customs union;

included in the list of goods originating from developing countries and least developed countries, in respect of which tariff preferences are provided when imported into the single customs territory of the member states of the customs union.

List of developing countries - users of the system of tariff preferences of the Customs Union (includes 102 states), List of least developed countries - users of the system of tariff preferences of the Customs Union (includes 49 countries in Africa and Asia), as well as List of goods originating and imported from developing and least developed countries developed countries, for the import of which tariff preferences are provided, were approved by the Decision of the Interstate Council of the EurAsEC dated November 27, 2009 No. 18 (shown in Appendices 2, 3 and 4, respectively).

The above tariff preferences are provided subject to the simultaneous observance of the following rules:

— rules for direct purchase. According to the Rules for determining the country of origin of goods from developing countries when granting tariff preferences within the framework of the General System of Preferences between the governments of the CIS member countries dated April 12, 1996, a product is considered as directly purchased if the importer purchased it from a person registered in the prescribed manner as a business entity in a developing or least developed country that is subject to preferential tariff treatment;

— rules for direct shipment. Direct shipment (delivery) is considered to be the delivery of goods transported from a developing or least developed country (territory) that is subject to a preferential tariff regime to a country that has granted tariff preferences without transportation through the territory of another state. The direct shipment rule also applies to goods transported through the territory of one or more countries due to geographical, transport, technical or economic reasons, provided that goods in transit countries, incl. when temporarily stored on the territory of these countries, they are under customs control. This rule also applies to goods purchased by the importer at exhibitions or fairs, subject to the following conditions:

- the goods were supplied from the territory of a developing or least developed country, which is subject to a preferential tariff regime, to the territory of the country where the exhibition or fair is held and remained under customs control during its holding;

- the goods, from the moment they were sent to the exhibition or fair, were not used for any purposes other than demonstration;

- goods are imported into the country that provided tariff preferences in the same condition in which they were delivered to the exhibition or fair, without taking into account changes in the condition of the goods due to natural wear and tear or loss under normal conditions of transportation and storage.

To certify the origin of goods from a developing country that are subject to a preferential tariff regime, the person moving the goods submits a declaration-certificate of the origin of the goods in Form “A”.

The preferential tariff regime does not apply to goods originating from a developing country that has not provided the names, addresses, and seals of the competent authorities authorized to certify certificates of origin of goods.

1. A country origin of goods, concept and principles

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Development of China in the last quarter of the twentieth century. and the beginning of the 21st century. became the most successful period in history and one of the most successful periods in the almost five thousand year history of the country. That's why China developing or developed country actual question.

The whole world knows about the economic miracle of China.

The country's historical task

Over the course of just one generation, the country was able to solve the eternal problem of “warmth and satiety” and turn from developing to developed, in the opinion of many. These successes look especially bright against the backdrop of the bloody civil wars of the early twentieth century, the long war of resistance to Japanese aggression, the wasteful experiments of the 1950s and the tragedy " cultural revolution».

The historical task that faced China in the middle of the 19th century was so large-scale and complex that its solution could not be simple and quick. The main difficulty was the inertia of continuous thousand-year history, which lay like an unbearable burden on the path of change.

Revolutions and wars, alternating throughout most of the twentieth century, were unable to break the old institutions and at the same time make a constructive contribution to the construction and development of China.

Advancement was accompanied by an inevitable rollback, and rapid jerks led to the destruction of not only what had been achieved at the previous stage, but also the very foundation of the state, putting it on the brink of chaos and collapse. The search for forms of combining these tasks was the main goal of all Chinese politicians and revolutionaries.

China's problem was not only to find a balance of old and new, traditional and modern, revolutions and reforms, but also to accurately determine the point of no return, after which the movement back to historical tradition would not become an inevitable return to the past, fraught with the death of an ancient civilization that has never found its place in the modern world.

For most of the last century, the country teetered on the edge of life and death, marked first by the consequences of prolonged isolation from the outside world and modernity, and then by increasingly vigorous attempts to bridge this gap, ruthlessly destroying the foundations of civilization.

Finding a development path

However, the search for its path to modernity did not exhaust the strategic goals of the Chinese state. The development of China was predetermined by the fact that for thousands of years the country thought of itself exclusively in terms of superiority and acting as the undisputed leader in the East Asian ecumene. The supporting role was unacceptable to her even on the international stage that had grown to the size of the entire planet.

Returning to world history and regaining one's place in the first rank of world powers was another challenge, no less important than the challenge of modernity. In the Chinese worldview, the loss of their leading role was identical to the loss of civilizational identity and the meaning of existence.

Not only government officials and the military, the political and cultural elite, but the entire Chinese society were convinced that China's development could only be associated with a great world power and no other.

The desire to enter modernity and establish itself in it as one of the leaders ran through the entire Chinese history of the twentieth century, determining the nature and degree of intensity of all internal processes.
That is why the path offered by capitalist development, which assigned China a strictly defined place in the existing world economic and political hierarchy, was rejected by the overwhelming majority of Chinese politicians and intellectuals.

China's problems

In an effort to compensate for the socio-economic backwardness of their country, the first Chinese revolutionaries at the beginning of the twentieth century. They solved China's problems by introducing advanced social thought as an integral and critically important part of political life, entrusting it with the functions of searching for strategic guidelines for development, previously determined by Confucian ideas and norms.

The people's revolution of 1949 for many years consolidated the ideocratic character of the Chinese state, which was soon absolutized; ideological dogmas again stifled living practice and the needs of economic development. Having established its superiority in the field of ideas, China's problems during the Cultural Revolution were isolated from the outside world.

China's development

The development of China in recent decades is inextricably linked with the reforms that began after the 3rd Plenum of the 11th CPC Central Committee (1978). However, the period preceding the reforms, both in socio-economic and historical terms, was not irrevocably wasted time. Despite the political mistakes of the leadership, the country as a whole developed progressively, demonstrating fairly high, although unstable, growth rates, the well-being of the population grew slowly but steadily, and industry, agriculture, the army, science and technology developed.

The extraction of rare earth metals developed, which other countries did not produce due to their high labor intensity.

The “Cultural Revolution” from the point of view of political and social life was a tragedy, but from the point of view of the larger historical cycle it became an event that finally overcame sociocultural inertia and pushed the country off the path of evolutionary inertia, disastrous for its integration into the modern world.

However, the destruction of the old culture led not only to the removal of obstacles to the development of China, but also to the elimination of fundamental values ​​and elementary order, and most importantly, did not bring us closer to achieving the main goal - the revival of the country as a world power.
It was not easy to leave the cycle of revolutions and reforms and move on to a new historical stage, primarily because the socio-political model created in the PRC was based on the personal authority of the founders of the new Chinese statehood.

Only the departure from the political scene of the generation of revolutionary wars could mark the beginning of a new development strategy. But who and how could mobilize society to pursue a new course was not clear, and it was not clear what from the old experience of transformation the country would take into the next stage. Ideology played a decisive role in the beginning process of change; only by modernizing it could gradual transformations in other areas begin.

New political situation in the country

The death of Zhou Enlai and Mao Zedong in 1976 created a fundamentally new political situation. The permanent leader of the party and state, who determined the development of the country for a quarter of a century, left behind a successor who had neither authority nor effective leverage over the party, army and society and was forced to seek a compromise with the leading political forces.

The new leadership inherited a large, albeit poorly managed, inheritance.

At the end of 1976, the PRC was a major world power with a territory of 9.563 million square meters. km (3rd place in the world), population 930.985 million people (1st place), GDP volume of 151.6277 billion dollars (9th place), accounting for 2.37% of world GDP, possessing nuclear weapons and the high international status of a permanent member of the UN Security Council.

The years since the founding of the People's Republic of China have brought certain successes in economic construction, with growth rates averaging 6.5% per year. China's development proceeded unevenly, with large unproductive costs, the structure of the national economy remained unbalanced, some industries lagged behind the advanced world level for decades, hundreds of millions of people lived in poverty, on the brink of survival.
Despite China's existing problems, based on an assessment of its potential, they generally looked promising, but the development experience, especially of the last decade, made it highly problematic to quickly and successfully find solutions to them.

The future of China depended entirely on the outcome of the political struggle and the ability of the new leadership to solve acute socio-economic problems.

• First of all, it was necessary to oust ideological scholasticism from public life, replace ideological dogmas with clear, practical result-oriented goals, and make experiment and practice the main criteria of a new stage of development.
• In addition, for the development of China it was necessary to find and mobilize internal resources, without which the task of revival seemed impossible. Apart from cheap labor, there were no other significant resources for modernization in China, but even in Chinese conditions at that time it was perceived rather as a disadvantage, putting pressure from an excess population on a weak economic basis.

In 1980, the Chinese press noted that in terms of GDP, China was inferior to the United States by 11.2 times, and the USSR by 7.5 times, and even more in terms of national income per capita.

Choosing a modernization strategy

The decisive role in choosing a modernization strategy at that stage was played by the outside world, which was still far ahead.
The beginning of the last quarter of the twentieth century. since 1975 there have been no signs of global changes. The world has entered an era of military parity between the two superpowers, the competition between which, through the efforts of politicians and the logic of historical development, has shifted to the economic sphere.

The positions of the USSR and the USA in the world seemed strong and unshakable, which predetermined high degree stability and predictability international relations. The PRC did not fit into this generally orderly picture of the world, which, due to its size, military-political and economic potential could become one of the world's leading players, and only China's internal problems prevented its active foreign policy steps. As the world rushes to new heights of scientific, technological and economic growth, the ideological doctrine of the PRC still described it in terms of class struggle, confrontation and revolutionary reconstruction, and “economy” was a dirty word.

An acute ideological conflict with the USSR pushed China to establish partnerships with the United States, which were ready to play the Chinese geopolitical card in its own interests.

Despite ideological restrictions and as a result of severe internal leadership struggles, China eventually expanded contacts and established cooperation with the West, first in the military and then in the economic sphere, and gradually began to emerge from self-isolation.

Heading to the world market

Reorientation to the world market, first through the creation of export-oriented industries and special economic zones (SEZ), allowed China to realize its competitive advantages- connect cheap labor with natural resources and advanced technologies of the outside world. Therefore, the question of whether China is a developing or a developed country is more related to a developed one. Although the International Monetary Fund (IMF) classifies China and India as developing countries.

Important growth factors were established political stability and birth control, which reduced the demographic burden on the economy. Having opened up to the outside world, China returned to world history, becoming part of the global trends of a developed country.

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According to the UN classification of countries: low-income; with long-term obstacles to economic growth; with an insufficient level of human resource development; and with serious shortcomings in the structure of the economy. See also: Indicators for... ... Financial Dictionary

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LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES (LDCs)- states that meet the criteria adopted by the UN General Assembly. The number of LDCs is changing. In 1984 there were 36 of them with a total population of 300 million people, in 1995 there were 47 (more than 2/3 were African countries, the rest were from Asia, Oceania and the Caribbean... Legal encyclopedia

INDUSTRIAL COUNTRIES- countries that ensure economic development based on the accumulated large volume of technically advanced capital and the presence of a highly qualified workforce. These include the USA, Canada, Japan, most Western European countries... Legal encyclopedia

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LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES - USERS OF PREFERENCE SCHEME- least developed countries listed in Appendix 4 to Order No. 258 of the State Customs Committee dated April 26, 1996. Customs duties are not applied to goods imported into the customs territory of the Russian Federation and originating from these countries. List of least developed... Encyclopedia of Russian and international taxation

Books

• Countries of the world. Encyclopedia,. On our planet huge variety countries: republics, kingdoms, principalities, commonwealths and so on. Large and small, developed and not very developed, aggressive, neutral and friendly - all...
• Developed countries: centers and peripheries. Experience of regional economic policy, Khasbulatov Omar Ruslanovich. The author of the monograph explores theoretical and practical issues of regional economic policy in developed countries of the world - the EU, USA, Canada and several others. The process of evolution of this…

Or, as they are commonly called, developing territories, this is a clear confirmation economic principle"80%-20%". Only here is the ratio of the population to the world population. With 80% of the world's population, they produce and consume 20% of the world's GDP. Today, China opens the list of developing countries. According to Bloomberg (the largest provider of financial information in the world), China's GDP growth over the next four years will be 46%. Such expansion will provide the Chinese economy with almost global dominance. To our chagrin, Russia ranks 9th on the Bloomberg list.

Who falls into this category?

The indicators by which states are included in the list of developing countries are GDP growth, the ratio of public debt to GDP, inflation, and the “ease of doing business” category coefficient. So, doing business according to this version in the Russian Federation is 21 points more difficult than in China. And this despite the fact that China's coefficient is very high.

Imperfect world

So what are these developing countries of the world, the list of which is constantly growing? These are states in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, characterized by an agrarian-raw materials economy and a rather poorly developed manufacturing industry, rapid population growth, and a low level of education. But such a definition would be more suitable to the pre-perestroika picture of a bipolar world. Now the list of developing countries includes all the republics of the former socialist camp, South Korea, and Russia. The good news is that we are in the top twenty of them.

Heterogeneity of the list of third world countries

Today, the list of which is opened by the most developed countries of Latin America (Brazil, Mexico, Argentina) and Asia (South Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong) can be divided into five groups.

Developing countries, the list of which includes the states of Latin America, Africa, Asia and Europe, are a special association of states that differ in the history of their development and have special specifications in running the economy. The key developing countries are India, Brazil, China and Mexico.

Developing countries are approaching a new stage of their development, playing the role of one of the main actors in world relations.

The development of young states was facilitated by rising indicators in the global economy. They also insist that there be a level playing field between international business participants. Today, their economy is aimed at increasing trade turnover indicators; their role in global trade turnover is constantly increasing.

Third world countries, who is on this list?

What does the very concept of a 3rd world country mean? Wikipedia answers this question briefly - countries that did not take part in cold war. Initially, the term “Third World” had precisely this meaning. Now the third world is called countries with economic backwardness that are developing their economies.

States in Latin America, Asia and Africa fall into this classification.

I must say that this is a larger number of representatives of these continents.

The total population is about seventy-five percent and covers most of the earth's hemisphere.

Now let’s figure out which country is considered developing and why.

Main features of developing countries

Let's try to name them all:

• they are characterized by a relatively low standard of living;
• there is no “middle class”;
• financial investments of rich people are many times higher than the income of ordinary citizens;
• foreign investors are not attracted because there is no legal framework;
• tax reform has not been improved;
• the banking system is not developed;
• an effective management apparatus has not been created;
• due to small wages, the majority of citizens cannot afford a nutritious diet and the necessary level of medicine;
• high level of unemployment - more than thirty-five percent of the population does not have a regular income;
• in third world countries there is a very high birth rate - from twenty to fifty births per thousand of the population;
• underage young people (and this is more than 40% of the total) do not have a job, part-time job or any business that brings in at least some income;
• very high mortality rate.

Developing countries - definition

Developing countries include:

1. Those states that have a low level of GDP per person. The comparison is made with Western states and second world countries (more developed socialist ones).
2. States with underdeveloped economies and scientific and technical potential. At the same time, there are sufficient reserves of natural resources.
3. Some of their representatives are former colonies. In Asia - Nepal, Bhutani and Yemen. In Latin America - Haiti, representatives of the African continent - Niger, Sudan, Chad, Burkina Faso, Guinea, Mauritania and others.

List of developing countries

So, we have given a basic definition and listed the characteristic features of developing countries in the world.

Their list is divided into:

• first world countries;
• second world states (many socialist, including our Russia);
• 3rd world countries or developing countries.

This is interesting: Initially, the concept of “third world country” referred to those states that did not participate in the Cold War. Now it characterizes the economic indicators of the state.

Let's give a list of developing or classic developing countries of the world (they are the same thing).

The list is as follows:

1. Representatives of the classical third world in Europe are: Pakistan, Mongolia, India, Egypt and the countries located to the south of them, many Arab: Syria, Albania, Iran. Characteristically: there are sources of accumulation of resources within the country, they are diverse, but the population is on the verge of starvation.
2. The following representatives are oil refining states: , Saudi Arabia, . Characteristically, only one economic sector is developed - oil production and export. There are large deposits of petroleum products in the territories. The government does not care about the development of other industries, which are not even shown in statistical indicators.
3. The list of African countries includes: Tanzania, Togo, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Western Sahara; Asia: Laos and Kampuchea; Latin America: Honduras, Tahiti, Guiana. Characteristically: there is the required amount of resources, but it is not enough to fully provide for the population. Lack of external investment and undeveloped production. The government is focused on importing products and has no interest in developing its own industry. Large population growth does not improve income levels, but causes starvation and increased mortality. This group supplies inexpensive raw materials, residents often travel to other countries (1st and 2nd world) for low-paid jobs.
4. Central Asia - , Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, . Characteristically: there are signs of 2nd world states left over from being part of the Soviet republic. These elements decrease and do not develop.

Emerging economies - 2018 list

1. China has occupied the leading position since 1978. Its economy is considered to be one of the fastest growing. The average income per person is $3,700.
2. India is in second place, its GDP amounted to 1.3 trillion. dollars. The agricultural sector (rice, cotton, tea, potatoes) and industry (textile production, oil refining industry) are developed.
3. Russia – the main income is the export of oil and gas.
4. Israel, and many others.

   Based on fundamental economic indicators, per capita income level, underdeveloped economy, low standard of living, dependence on developed European countries, small volumes of the domestic market, undeveloped industrial sector, the UN commission classified these countries as 3rd world countries.

   It is important: The activities of the governments of these countries can influence and change established concepts and indicators. It is necessary to take the necessary reforms, attract potential investors, and improve the standard of living of the population through economic growth and development.

   Watch this latest video highlighting the potential of developing countries in Asia: