Urbanization. The role of cities in the modern global economy

Ministry of General and Professional Education of the Rostov Region GBOU SPO RO "Kamensk Technical School of Construction and Auto Service".

Abstract.
In the discipline "Geography".
on the topic: “World cities and their role in modern world development.”

Completed by the student:
group 20 SPO
Bidenko M.A.
Checked by the teacher:
Zelenskaya N.V.
World politics is made in the world's cities. An analysis of the location of the headquarters of various international organizations allows us to assess the role and strength of influence of certain centers of the geopolitical system of the world. The latter are divided into two categories - international interstate (intergovernmental) organizations (IMOs) and international non-governmental organizations (INGOs). The number of international organizations is constantly increasing and already amounts to more than 13 thousand. The vast majority of them are INGOs. MMOs are much less numerous, but carry significantly more weight. Their activities are fully regulated by international law. Currently, there are about 300 such organizations, and the largest and most influential are less than 150.
The head offices of 5,873 INGOs are located in 20 cities, with 13 cities from this list being European. The top ten centers include all the world's leading cities, but Brussels is the undisputed leader. There are 1,392 INGOs headquartered here, which is slightly less than London and Paris combined, which ranks second and third. This triumvirate of centers is quite understandable. Each of these cities is traditionally considered a stronghold of free thought, is the center of national and international socio-political movements, and associations of the most diverse nature and direction, a favorite venue for international conventions, conferences and congresses.
Against this background, the positions of New York and especially Tokyo turn out to be very modest. In the second ten geopolitical centers, cities stand out as new growth points developing countries- Buenos Aires (110 INGO headquarters), Nairobi (100) and Mexico City (87). In general, the geography of location of IMOs and INGOs largely coincides. Almost 80% of the head offices of the most influential MMOs are concentrated in world cities (Table 3). Outside the global centers, with rare exceptions, there are organizations of predominantly local and partly regional status. Among the world cities themselves, the location of IMO head offices is also significantly uneven. Seven key geopolitical centers - New York, Paris, London, Brussels, Geneva, Washington and Vienna - account for more than 2/3 of the IMO head offices and 4/5 of global and global-regional associations. (Appendix 2.)
An outstanding global geopolitical center is New York - the location of the UN headquarters and a number of its large structural divisions. In terms of scale of activity, neither London, nor Paris, and especially Tokyo, where only the UN University is located, are comparable. Almost half of the most important MMOs are concentrated in the world's secondary cities. Geneva, Washington, and Vienna are almost 2.5 times larger than London, Paris, and Tokyo in terms of the number of MMO headquarters.
It can be stated that the main geostrategic axis Europe - USA, whose history goes back more than two hundred years, is preserved, while the centers of the Asia-Pacific and other regions of the world still remain in the shadows. The North American region has a pronounced monocentric structure (with a large lead from New York), while the European region is characterized by polycentrism.
The role of global cities as producing centers is determined by the scale of their GRP, and as centers that manage and control the global economy - by the level of concentration of the headquarters of the largest TNCs, key institutions of the international financial market, primarily TNB, and more recently - by the level of concentration of firms in them advanced business services.
The economic potential of the world's leading cities is enormous. In terms of GRP volumes, each of them is comparable to some countries. The top ten global cities alone account for over 10% of the world's GDP. The undisputed world leader is Greater Tokyo, whose GRP at PPP in 2005 amounted to $1.2 trillion. The overconcentration of economic activity in Japan is also evidenced by the fact that only the three main centers of the Tokaido megalopolis - Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka - account for more than half Country's GDP. Second place in the ranking is occupied by Greater New York ($1.1 trillion), third by Greater Los Angeles, fourth by Greater Chicago (Table 4). In total, the top thirty major manufacturing centers of the world include 16 US cities.
The largest urban agglomerations in the United States produce about 85% of the country's total GDP. The indicators for European cities are much more modest. Among them the largest economic potential have the metropolitan regions of France ($460 billion) and are followed by the agglomeration of Spain - Madrid ($166 billion)
And Great Britain ($452 billion). Following the two leading cities in Europe by a large margin are the agglomerations of Spain - Madrid ($166 billion) and Barcelona (140), as well as Italy - Rome (123) and Milan (115). Moscow has $161 billion and 25th place. (Appendix 3.)
Assessments and ratings of the economic power and governing role of world cities are closely related to the location of the headquarters of the largest TNCs. No matter how the composition of the largest TNCs changes, the concentration of their headquarters in global centers remains quite stable. It is traditionally led by four cities - Tokyo, New York, London and Paris. Together, they account for more than 1/4 of all the headquarters of the largest TNCs in the world. In this case, Tokyo and New York are the first to perform.
The capital of Japan hosts over 60 headquarters of TNCs from the world's 500 largest corporations and 9 of the country's 12 largest industrial and financial groups: Mitsubishi, Hitachi, NipponSteel, Nissan, Fuji, Toshiba, Daiichi, Honda and Sony. Each of them has enormous economic potential and opportunities. It is no coincidence that Tokyo is considered the leading center for managing the entire industry of the world. No less representative is the list of TNCs based in New York and its environs. Here are the headquarters of corporations that are included in the top ten industry and summary ratings of the world's largest TNCs. In particular, these include: developer and manufacturer of computer hardware and software, IBM (Armonk), global tobacco industry giant PhilipMoris, oil company Texas (White Plains) and a number of others.
Recently, new centers have been joining the existing hierarchy of global cities - the governing bodies of the world economy. The most obvious example in this regard is Seoul, where, as a result of the stormy economic development With the participation of foreign capital, the active formation of national and transnational business structures is taking place. Along with the national economy, the positions of other young centers are also strengthening - Singapore, Shanghai, Beijing, Hong Kong, Sao Paulo, etc. The rapid growth in the international significance of these cities and their attractiveness for foreign investors is demonstrated by the increase in the number of regional headquarters and representative offices of TNCs. So, in Hong Kong only for 1991-2003. their number more than quadrupled (from 648 to 2520). At the same time, companies from two key figures in the world economy - the USA and Japan - showed particular interest in gaining a foothold in the new market.
The most powerful tool of modern business is free capital. It is no coincidence that the global city is primarily positioned as a global financial center, which is understood as the geographic focus of financial transactions and the banks, financial companies, stock exchanges and other institutions that carry them out. The geography of financial and world centers coincides. A global city is unthinkable without a developed financial sector. This sector not only plays a large independent role in the context of the city’s position on global financial markets, but is also largely called upon to ensure the progress of all sectors of its economy. In addition, it has a powerful stimulating effect on the development of a range of both auxiliary and new activities, including insurance, security, computer services, software, training, consulting and many other services. Of particular importance in world cities are stock exchanges, as places of direct contacts at the highest level. Stock exchanges determine the functioning of the entire global economy, and commodity exchanges only manage the markets for raw materials.
The financial system of the world is quite different high level territorial concentration, managed and controlled by a limited number of centers. For example, in the total capital the share of 25 of the 1000 leading banks increased over 1995-2004. from 31 to 37%. Number of largest centers stock trading ordinary securities does not exceed 25, and the leading financial centers identified by a set of indicators are 19. They are clearly localized in three regions - Western European (Amsterdam, Brussels, Copenhagen, London, Milan, Paris, Frankfurt am Main, Zurich), North American (Montreal , New York, Toronto, Chicago) and Asia-Pacific (Osaka, Seoul, Sydney, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taipei, Tokyo). Among global cities, London stands out as the main financial center of the world. It currently accounts for 70% of global trade in international bonds, 32% of global turnover foreign exchange market(more than Tokyo, New York and Frankfurt am Main combined), about 50% of global trading in foreign shares. London leads in the volume of international deposits and credit operations, and among European stock markets services - for the turnover of securities (followed by Paris, Frankfurt am Main, Zurich). London has a huge concentration of financial institutions, including representative offices of 565 foreign structures serving global trade and capital migration. Here are the headquarters of a number of international financial organizations, in particular European Bank reconstruction and development.
New York is the world's largest trading center for stocks, gold futures, and international banking operations. There are over 3 thousand companies operating on the New York Stock Exchange, trading volumes are rapidly growing, which for 1980-2004. increased from 398 billion to 20 trillion dollars. But even more, New York strengthened its position as a financial center with the organization of trading on electronic exchange NASDAQ. Over the past decade, trading volumes there have grown from $452 billion to $20.4 trillion. More than 350 of the 540 foreign bank offices located in the United States are located in the city; six of the ten largest American banks are based, together holding 85% of foreign deposits, and a number of reputable rating agencies. Here is the headquarters of the recognized flagship of world finance - Citigroup.
Tokyo ranks third in the world for currency and securities trading. The Tokyo Stock Exchange is also third in the world in terms of capitalization and fourth in terms of total value of registered bonds. Since 1999, the exchange has had a section for placement and trading of shares of high-tech companies “ new economy» - an analogue of the NASDAQ system in the USA. The capital of Japan is home to over 4/5 of the head offices of national banks, about 80 foreign banks have official representative offices, and the headquarters of 8 of the 50 largest banks in the world. Three of them - Mizuho, Mitsubishi, Sumitomo - are in the world's top ten. However, this financial center is going through hard times. It is experiencing serious competition from Singapore and Hong Kong, which are successfully taking over some of the functions. Lately some trade has been taken over by them. foreign currency and futures. Hong Kong is considered the second most important financial center in Asia. Its important feature is the speculative orientation of the operations performed.
Hong Kong's main competitor is Singapore, which has an advantageous geographical location on regional and global trade routes. Practicing preferential tax regime, Singapore is the only financial center among third world countries with a full set of all components (gold market, foreign exchange market, bank loans and stock values).
Possessing colossal economic potential, world cities act as key focal points not only of the national territory, but also of the entire world economy, which, through the network structures of TNCs and TNBs, are able to control the entire global economy. The existing composition of such centers is relatively narrow and conservative, although recently there has been a tendency to expand the composition and geography due to new, dynamically growing cities.
Currently, the 20 leading and main global centers accumulate 176 million people, or 2.9% of the total and 5.9% of the world's urban population. (Appendix 1.) Despite a significant slowdown in population growth over the past half century, this is 2.5 times more than in 1950. During 1950-1970. The number of residents of the world's top twenty cities increased by 52 million people during 1970-1990. - by 38 million, and for 1990-2005. - only for 16 million people. Almost 3/5 of the total population growth over the past 15 years has occurred in five centers of developing countries - Sao Paulo, Mexico City, Bangkok, Hong Kong and Singapore. A significant part of the world's cities, such as Milan, Madrid, Brussels and even Seoul, at various times and for various reasons, have not only passed the peak of growth rates, but are also steadily losing population. The world's leading cities are part of the supporting framework of the planet's urban settlement, but fast-growing megacities in developing countries are becoming increasingly important in its completion.
But the main role of world cities is played not as centers of population concentration, but as global centers for the exchange of human resources. The annual volume of international migration alone in each of the leading global cities amounts to hundreds of thousands of people, that is, it is quite comparable to the scale of entire states and is growing rapidly. Global cities are the largest receiving centers of migration flows from all regions of the world. This is their fundamental difference from the megacities of developing countries, which serve primarily as starting points for international migration. In Greater London, immigration doubles emigration (200 thousand versus 107 thousand people in 2002). The global connections of world cities is clearly illustrated by the example of New York, which annually receives approximately 100 thousand immigrants from 100 countries.
World cities are the nuclei of temporary rather than permanent international migration. Global centers serve as an important base for short-term official, business, scientific, representative and various other contacts. Significant numbers of people come here for training, contract work, exhibitions, visiting relatives, leisure and recreation. Miami and New York stand out. The geography of connections between cities is extremely vast; their formant is the whole world. New York maintains contacts with 209 different countries and territories. There is a certain division of labor between cities in serving different areas, which is quite closely linked to their geographical location. For example, Miami oversees relations with Latin America, Los Angeles and San Francisco - with the countries of Asia and Oceania. For New York, Chicago and Washington, the European direction remains a priority, especially connections with the UK.
In modern conditions, the participation of the world's leading cities in organizing the supporting framework of the planet's urban settlement is radically changing. They are increasingly losing their role as centers for the accumulation of simple labor to the rapidly growing megacities of developing countries. At the same time, global centers lead the process of transcontinental exchange and management of human flows. They have recently acquired particular importance in serving not so much permanent as temporary international migration of the population, including for business purposes.

Urbanization- this is the growth of cities and the increase in their role.

In 1800, only 2% of people lived in cities. In 1950, only 30% of the world's population were considered urban dwellers. In 2007, the world's urban population exceeded its rural population for the first time. Now in developed countries, 775 of the population lives in cities, in developing countries - about 30%. The most urbanized countries are Europe and Latin America. Urban population growth rates in developing countries are higher than in developed countries.

10 largest cities: Shanghai, Sao Paulo, Istanbul, Karachi, Tokyo, Mumbai, Delhi, Moscow, Seoul, Beijing.

Industrialization– the basis of urbanization (productivity in large cities is much higher), the need to concentrate larger industries using a variety of resources

· Internal economies of scale (fixed costs)

· External economies of scale (related to the provision of infrastructure, markets, raw materials, resources, specialization)

Growth of cities historically was caused:

1. Initially – reduction of transport costs and internal economies of scale (up to Industrial Revolution)

2. After the Industrial Revolution – primarily externalities of scale

The growth of cities is associated with the movement of people from rural areas in search of better jobs and better living conditions.

Problems for urban residents moving from the village:

Lack of housing (overcrowded slums)

Lack of necessary infrastructure

· Lack of property rights (illegal residence)

· Inability to legally get a job

Differences in living conditions urban population in third world countries from developed countries:

1) the problem of garbage, poor social conditions (for example, lack of sewerage)

2) excessively high density settlement of the territory, the problem of urban slums (slum dwellers make up the majority of the urban population in Africa and South Asia)

3) the distance between home and work increases - the load on public transport

4) growth of the informal sector of the economy (some urban residents live and work illegally)

Urbanization is associated with the process dualization of the economy developing countries - the existence of two different economies in the agricultural sector and in cities. Agriculture often has a natural character, does not develop, and in cities there is a commercial economy and rapid growth is observed.

Agglomerations- compact cluster settlements, mainly urban, merging in places, united into a complex multi-component dynamic system with intensive production, transport and cultural connections.

Japan: Greater Tokyo

USA: San San (San Francisco, LA, San Diego)

Bos-Wash (Boston, NY, Washington)

There are 11 millionaire cities in the Russian Federation, 3 largest:

1) Moscow 12-17 million.

2) St. Petersburg 4.5-6.5 million.

3) Ekaterinburg

There is a shortage of several cities between St. Petersburg and million-plus cities in size.

The role of cities in the modern global economy

IN modern world Cities play an important role in the global economy; they are distinguished as independent actors in world politics and economics. The role of cities:

ü m/n trade agents

ü sales markets (higher salary => more consumption)

ü have a coordinating function [ circle]

o transport function (traffic flow centers)

o determine resource allocation

o political and judicial bodies

ü financial centers (the main stock exchanges are located in cities, capital is concentrated)

ü engines economic growth(educational and scientific centers, highly qualified personnel => NTP engines)

ü political, administrative centers (centers for making the most important political decisions)

ü regional centers

ü connection with production - single-industry towns

Introduction.
Cities are a great creation of the mind and hands of man. They play a decisive role in the territorial organization of society. They serve as a mirror of their countries and regions. Cities - leaders are called spiritual workshops of humanity and engines of progress.
But the city is also an exceptionally contradictory form of human settlement. Being a means of solving many problems of social development, they are also the source and arena of their most acute manifestation.
Improving cities as a living environment and places of concentration of various activities, the rational arrangement of urban networks in accordance with the geographical, cultural, historical, socio-economic characteristics of the territory is an important task in all countries of the world.
My theme course work"The Concept of World Cities". The following indicators are highlighted as criteria for identifying world cities: 1. population size, 2. scale of development of financial activities, 3. number of headquarters of multinational companies, 4. role in international politics (including the location of governing bodies of large international organizations), 5. high growth rates of the business services sector, 6. size of industrial production, 7. scale and level of development of transport. According to these indicators, 10-15 largest cities in the world can be classified as world cities (which are sometimes called “world capitals”), incl. New York, London, Paris, Tokyo.
The purpose of the work is to reveal trends in the development of world cities. In my work, I indicated the world cities of ancient times, and also analyzed and compared world cities according to various criteria, named the largest megacities of our time and tried to make a forecast for the development of world cities in the future. For this I
· considered issues related to the historical stages of urban development;
· described the evolution of the concepts of world cities of various geocity scientists;
· identified a number of the largest agglomerations and megacities of the modern world;
The relevance of this topic is due to the high public need for scientific knowledge, the need to reveal the essence of the defining indicators in the development of world cities.
The theoretical basis of the course work was made up of works devoted to the evolution and functioning of world cities, the study of the city as a social
organism, settlement and planning structure of large cities of agglomerations, typology and classification of urban settlements, modern urbanization, as well as other works on economic geography related to the topic of work.

CHAPTER 1.
City and geography .

§ 1 Geographical approach to the study of cities.

The city is a special, incomparable creation of the mind and hands of man. It is the living environment of an ever-increasing number of people and a place of concentration of various, increasingly diverse types of activities. Cities have become known as engines of progress. New things are born in them and spread from them. These are creative laboratories, spiritual workshops of humanity..
A huge historical and cultural heritage is concentrated in the cities. They store masterpieces of architecture, the historical memory of countries and peoples, and represent a stone chronicle of humanity. And in themselves, as the most complex creation of human minds and hands, the labor of many generations, they are of the greatest value. The special significance of cities lies in the fact that they create conditions for humanity to move forward. They have arsenals of information, connect different spheres of activity, at the intersection of which points of growth arise in culture, science, technology, and politics. They have a special atmosphere of communication, a multi-contact environment. Being places of concentration of many problems of society, cities are at the same time a means of solving them.
The study of cities is necessary in order to make them more convenient for people to live in, i.e. provide them with the best conditions to perform their critical responsibilities. It has been rightly noted: the more complex cities become, the more complex is the knowledge about them. But it is possible to create a geographical doctrine of the city.
Geographical ideas and concepts are essential to uncovering the fundamental properties of a city. Geographical approaches are characterized by complexity, corresponding to the nature of this complex object. Geography examines the city at different territorial levels, which opens the way to the study of the city as a system within a system of cities. Geography suggests viewing it as an ecosystem, which will allow us to study the environmental problems of the modern world.
Social geography helps to understand the city as a kind of “demographic cauldron” in which very complex social and demographic processes take place. As an environment, as a social organism, it significantly influences the demographic behavior of people and their social stratification. It not only creates favorable conditions for the dawn of the human personality, but also the phenomena of social pathology arise. The city is home to pockets of high culture and nests of crime.
Geography reveals the peculiarities of the geographical location of the city - this specific resource, perhaps the most important for its development. Geography obliges us to consider the city together with the environment that acts as its partner, and at the same time an addition, as well as together with the sponsored territory that it is obliged to serve and look after. Change in the city causes a response in the surrounding area - a kind of “spatial resonance”.
The geographical study of the city is constructive. And it is no coincidence that there is a constant convergence of geography with urban planning and regional planning. Without revealing the fundamental principles of cities and their systems, it is impossible to regulate their growth and development.
But the city, as an object of research, is very important for geography, which finds application in it for all its subsidiary sciences and can realize, by studying the city, its potential as an integrative science. Being a collection of enterprises and devices that have a complex impact on the environment, the city not only itself becomes an area with a tense ecological situation, but also a factor that changes, sometimes very sharply, a similar situation within a vast area. Consideration of the problems of landscape sustainability, which is what modern geography deals with, is impossible without the teaching of the city, in which nature is subjected to a severe natural test of strength.
It is logical to turn to the city when studying such an important topic for economic geography as the geographical division of labor, since cities are both the result and an equally significant factor in the division of labor. The city is not only an economic center, a center of industry and a place of production of spiritual values. These are, first of all, the people inhabiting the city, constituting a special territorial community. The activities and lives of many generations of people have created a certain environment in the city, characterized by a specific atmosphere, traditions, and everything that is called the spirit of the city.
The versatility of the city and its complex functional structure make it possible to use examples of different cities - centers of this or that activity - when characterizing industries, modes of transport, fields of science, art, and education.
The theme of the city is needed not only to strengthen intra-geographical connections: between economic and social geography, between the geography of society and the geography of nature, the geography of industries and the geography of regions. It should be used to strengthen the contacts of geography as an academic subject with history, literature, and biology.
Historical and geographical analysis of the formation of a network of cities and their role as strongholds in consolidating state territory connects geography and history. The city is a multi-layered formation that bears the imprint of different eras. Its buildings, streets and squares are witnesses of significant historical events. The founding of a city is the realization of the economic and military-strategic aspirations of the state at one or another historical stage.
The theme of the city occupies a large place in literature. Many Russian writers very carefully studied the city and the life of its inhabitants. The method of comparative characterization of cities has become widespread. Cities became places not only of creativity, but also of literary action. The study of the literary biography of cities, thanks to the observation and gift of words of writers, allows us to more fully imagine the places of the city in the country, its characteristic features and originality.

№№2
The evolution of the concept of world cities.
The development of large cities in the world has always been in the field of view of specialists in various fields of knowledge. Historical eras and formations changed, the territorial organization and priorities of economic development were transformed, but large cities always remained at the forefront of progress, and interest in them never faded. Recently, among the variety of types of cities, the formation of their special category of world or global cities has attracted increased attention from the wider scientific community.
Initially, the concept of a world city in specialized literature was used to designate cities of special cultural and religious significance, such as Rome or Paris, as well as the capitals of former empires, such as London, Paris, Vienna, Madrid. Over time, the understanding and interpretation of the phenomenon undergo dramatic changes. The modern theory of world cities proceeds primarily from the special participation of a number of centers in the architecture of the global socio-political situation and the world economy. Such centers are distinguished both by the size of the population, the status of the capitals of the largest countries, and by the range of activities and the degree of political influence and economic power. They are the location of the key individuals, institutions and organizations that govern, manipulate, dictate and determine the formation and reproduction of capitalism throughout the world. These cities are a kind of command and control points of the global economic system. Such disproportionate and exceptional importance of individual agglomerations allows us to speak about their dominant positions in the urban hierarchy of the planet.
There are many difficulties in exploring the world's cities. Some of them are due to the dynamic development and complexity of the geopolitical and geo-economic space of the world and rapid transformation processes in cities, the other part is closely related to certain weaknesses of international statistics and the crudeness of the methodological base of the study. The authors use a variety of assessments and approaches to identifying and studying world cities. One of the direct consequences of this situation is the formation in geoeconomics of a fairly wide range of, on the one hand, interpretation of the level of significance of large cities, and on the other, the terms used to denote the phenomenon. In the specialized literature, the frequency of such names as “world center”, “information city”, “reflective city”, “cosmopolis”, “metropolis”, “global urban region” is high. Be that as it may, the dynamics of the number of thematic publications clearly indicates that the intensity of research into global cities is increasing. To date, a number of scientific schools have emerged in different countries of the world to study this phenomenon.

Chapter 1. World economy and international economic relations: main features and peculiarities

1.1. International economic relations
One of the distinctive features of the world economy of the second half of the 20th century is the intensive development of international economic relations (IER). There is an expansion and deepening of economic relations between countries, groups of countries, economic groupings, individual firms and organizations. The mechanism for implementing IEO is being improved and restructured. These processes are manifested by the deepening of the international division of labor, the internationalization of financial and economic relations, the globalization of the world economy, the increasing openness of national economies, their complementarity and rapprochement, the development and strengthening of regional international structures.
It is characteristic that all these processes of interaction, rapprochement, and cooperation are of a contradictory dialectical nature.
The dialectic of IEO is that the desire for economic independence and the strengthening of the national economies of individual countries ultimately leads to the general internationalization of the world economy, the openness of national economies, and the deepening of the international division of labor.
International economic relations include the study of two important components: international economic relations themselves and their mechanism. implementation.
International economic relations include a multi-level complex of economic relations between individual countries, their regional associations and subjects, as well as individual enterprises (transnational, multinational) corporations in the world economic system. International economic relations as a science study not the economies of foreign countries, but the features of their economic relations. And not any economic relations, but only the most frequently repeated, typical, characteristic, defining relations.
The mechanism of international economic relations includes legal norms and instruments for their implementation (international economic treaties, agreements, “codes”, charters, etc.), the corresponding activities of international economic organizations aimed at achieving the goals of developing international economic relations.
The structure of international economic relations includes the following forms:
1. International trade in goods and. services.
2. International movement of capital.
3. International labor migration.
4. International technology exchange.
5. International monetary, financial and credit relations.
6. International economic integration.

No. No. 2. IEO forms

2.1. International trade in the system of international economic relations

The traditional and most developed form of international economic relations is foreign trade. According to some estimates, trade accounts for about 80% of the total volume of international economic relations. Modern international economic relations, characterized by the active development of world trade, introduce a lot of new and specific things into the process of development of national economies.
For any country, the role of foreign trade can hardly be overestimated. According to J. Sachs’ definition, “the economic success of any country in the world is based on foreign trade. No country has yet managed to create a healthy economy by isolating itself from the global economic system.”
International trade is a form of communication between commodity producers different countries, arising on the basis of the international division of labor, and expresses their mutual economic dependence.
Structural changes occurring in the economies of countries under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution, specialization and cooperation of industrial production strengthen the interaction of national economies. This contributes to the activation of international trade. International trade, which mediates the movement of all intercountry commodity flows, is growing faster than production. According to research by the World Trade Organization, for every 10% increase in global production there is 16%; increasing the volume of world trade. This creates more favorable conditions for its development. When disruptions occur in trade, the development of production slows down.
The term “foreign trade” refers to the trade of a country with other countries, consisting of paid import (import) and paid export (export) of goods.
Diverse foreign trade activities are divided according to product specialization into: trade in finished products, trade in machinery and equipment, trade in raw materials and trade in services.
International trade is the paid total trade turnover between all countries of the world. However, the concept of “international trade” is also used in a narrower sense. It means, for example, the total trade turnover of industrialized countries, the total trade turnover of developing countries, the total trade turnover of countries of a continent, region, for example, the countries of Eastern Europe, etc. Sooner or later, all states faced the dilemma of choosing a foreign trade national policy. There have been heated discussions on this topic for several centuries.

""2Causes of international capital movement and its main forms
The international movement of capital, its active migration between countries is the most important component and form of modern international economic relations.
The export of capital broke the monopoly of the export of goods in the era of in-depth development of the world economy. Complementing and mediating the export of goods, it becomes decisive in the system of international economic relations. According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), in the 1980s (since 1983), the average annual growth rate of direct investment (DI) was approximately 34%, i.e. almost 4 times the rate of increase in world trade.
The movement of capital differs significantly from the movement of goods. Foreign trade, as a rule, comes down to the exchange of goods as use values. Export of capital (foreign investment) is the process of removing part of capital from national circulation in a given country and moving it in commodity or monetary form into the production process and circulation of another country. At first, the export of capital was typical for a small number of industrialized countries that exported capital to the periphery of the world economy. The development of the world economy has significantly expanded the scope of this process: the export of capital becomes a function of any successfully, dynamically developing economy. Capital is exported by leading industrialized countries, moderately developed countries and developing, especially newly industrialized countries.
What are the reasons for the export of capital?
The main reason and prerequisite for the export of capital is the relative excess of capital in a given country, its overaccumulation. In order to obtain business profit or interest, it is transferred abroad. It is characteristic that capital can be exported even if there is a shortage of capital for domestic investment.
By the 90s, huge ones had formed in the world; masses of reserve capital seeking profitable use. Insurance companies, pension funds, trust, investment and other funds accumulate these funds. In the USA alone, their assets exceeded in 1995. 8 trillion Doll.
Since the second half of the 20th century, the export of capital has been continuously growing. Capital exports are growing faster than both merchandise exports and the gross domestic product of industrialized countries. Against the background of a sharp increase in the scale of capital export, its international migration is intensifying.
International capital migration is the counter movement of capital between countries; bringing their owners adequate income. Many countries are simultaneously importers and exporters of capital: so-called cross-investments occur.
The most important reasons for the export of capital for the sake of greater profits are:
1. The discrepancy between the demand for capital and its supply in various parts of the world economy.
2. The emergence of the opportunity to develop local commodity markets. At the same time, capital “is exported in order to pave the way for the export of goods and stimulate demand for its own products. For these purposes, existing markets are not only developed, but new ones are created.
3. Availability of cheaper raw materials and labor in the countries where capital is exported. So, for example, a German worker in the manufacturing industry is “worth” 4 times more than a Taiwanese worker, 9 times more than a Brazilian or Mexican worker, and 54 times more than a Russian worker.
4. Stable political1 situation and a generally favorable investment climate in the host country, preferential investment regimes in special (free) economic zones.
5. Lower environmental standards in the host country than in the capital donor country.
6. The desire to indirectly penetrate the markets of “third countries” that have established high tariff or non-tariff restrictions on the products of one or another international corporation. For example, Israel and South Korea introduced a ban on the import of cars from Japan. However, such a ban does not apply to the import of cars produced by branches of Japanese companies operating in the United States.
In practice, the need to invest is determined by a complex of reasons, including all components of the investment climate, as well as the principle of comparative advantage of individual markets.
Factors promoting and stimulating the export of capital:
1. Growing interconnection and interconnection of national economies, which are the driving force activating the export of capital. The internationalization of production has a huge impact on the international movement of capital, helping to accelerate it. Export of capital; especially in the form of direct investment, is the main factor contributing to the transformation of production into international production and the creation of so-called international products. International products are products sold on the global international market. It is unified and is implemented regardless of geographical, national or other characteristics (cars, airplanes, radio electronics, computers, etc.).
2. International industrial cooperation, investments of transnational corporations in subsidiaries. Thus, individual legally independent enterprises from different countries within the framework of one international corporation establish close cooperation in the field of industry, technology, and detail specialization. The export of capital provides these connections.
3. The economic policy of industrialized countries, aimed at attracting significant amounts of capital to maintain economic growth rates, employment levels, and the development of advanced industries.
4. The economic behavior of developing countries seeking to, by attracting foreign capital, give a significant impetus to their economic development and break out of the “vicious circle of poverty.”
5. Important stimulants are international financial organizations that direct and regulate the flow of capital.
6. International agreements on the avoidance of double taxation of income and capital between countries contribute to the development of trade, scientific and technical cooperation, and attraction of investments.

The impact of the international captain movement on the world economy and its consequences for countries exporting and importing capital
The process of internationalization of capital markets, which intensified in the early 70s and is gaining momentum, is manifested in the constantly increasing volumes of capital flows between market economy states. This is evidenced by the general growth of direct and portfolio investments, an increase in the volume of long-term and short-term loans, an increase in the scale of operations in the Eurocurrency market, etc.
International capital movements, occupying a leading place in international economic relations, has a huge impact on the world economy:
1. Contributes to the growth of the global economy. Capital crosses borders in search of favorable areas for its application and growth on a global scale. The influx of foreign investment for most recipient countries helps solve the problem of shortage of productive capital, increases investment capacity, and accelerates the rate of economic growth.
2. Deepens the international division of labor and international cooperation.
The export of capital is one of the most important conditions for the formation and development of the international division of labor. The mutual penetration of capital between countries strengthens economic ties and cooperation between them, contributes to the deepening of international specialization and cooperation in production.
3. Increases the volume of mutual trade between countries; including intermediate products, between branches of international corporations, stimulating the development of world trade.
Playing a stimulating role in the development of the world economy, international capital movement causes various consequences for countries exporting and importing capital.
The consequences for countries exporting capital include the following:
¦ the export of capital abroad without adequate attraction of foreign investment leads to a slowdown in the economic development of exporting countries;
¦ the export of capital negatively affects the level of employment in the exporting country;
¦ the movement of capital abroad adversely affects the country's balance of payments.
For countries importing capital, positive consequences may be as follows:
¦ regulated import of capital contributes to the economic growth of the capital recipient country;
¦ attracted capital creates new jobs;
¦ foreign capital brings new technologies, effective management, and helps accelerate scientific and technological progress in the country;
¦ capital inflow helps improve the balance of payments of the recipient country.
In turn, there are also negative consequences of attracting other foreign capital:
¦ the influx of foreign capital, “crushing” local capital, or taking advantage of its inaction, displaces it from profitable industries. As a result, under certain conditions, this can lead to one-sided development of the country and a threat to its economic security;
etc.................

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Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine, Youth and Sports

Kharkov National University of Construction and Architecture

Department of Architectural Design

Abstract on the topic:

“The concepts of global and world city”

Etc. Ladygina I. V

Vol. Art. gr A-53

Fedorenko Yu. V

Kharkov 2013

The history of cities goes back more than ten thousand years. The reasons for their appearance and subsequent evolution are the subject of debate among researchers representing various disciplines, as well as the definition of “city” itself.

Over a period spanning almost ten millennia, cities evolve from relatively small settlements numbering several thousand inhabitants to large entities with a complex structure that perform economic, socio-political, cultural and scientific functions, which allows us to talk about completely different objects that we define such a simple term as "city".

All cities had their own history, which was determined by various factors: natural, socio-economic, ethnic and cultural, as well as the peculiarities of the development of the country and region, which gives an idea of the characteristics of cities (their “individuality”) and their different evolution.

urban planning architecture global urbanization

Rice. 1 City of the twentieth century

The 20th century is the “century of cities”. New cities are not even in the hundreds, but in the thousands; Their geography is also vast - America, Russia, Europe, Asia.

Each stage in a long history has its own specific features. The peculiarity of the modern stage is the dominance information technologies, due to which there is even a weakening of national territorial units, and conditions arise for the growth of units of other scales. These are supranational units that take on the appearance of certain global cities (from English - world, global cities).

Terms that are similar in meaning are introduced into scientific use: world cities, super cities, information cities, which have justification and the right to exist. The term “global city” also helps to define the specificity of the modern world - globality. The global city becomes like an information center, and being in it is like being in a dense information flow. At the same time, such a global city is not isolated; it strives to expand its borders and merge with other cities so that the information flow does not break even for a minute. This flow passes through national entities and across borders.

A common language is being developed: professionals in any industry understand each other better than different social groups in the same country. The number of contacts between global cities in various fields is increasing - in politics, culture, and social movements. Thus, the real space on which global cities unfold fades into the background. The national gives way to the global.

Rice. 2 Architecture of Global Cities

In this new urban architecture, the difference between the cities of the two eras is also outlined: closed walls give a feeling of freedom, and a city devoid of walls takes away this freedom. A person in such a city is limited in his freedom. To make human life safe in a modern global city, architects also propose a third type of building - a “bunker” (Virilio’s idea).

The earth is no longer so favorable to man; he needs protection again. And protective ditches, bastions, and towers are returning to architecture. The bunker has no foundation and can drift in the ocean. It is devoid of the geometry of classical architecture and similarities with the projects of ideal cities of the past. Such a bunker is very convenient in a global city - a city without national signs. This is, in fact, a convenient shell for a person and his habitat.

All these projects are not as fantastic as they seem at first glance. They fit perfectly into the projects for new human settlements proposed by the Greek architect-urban planner Doxiadis. He asserts the legitimacy of unlimited urban growth and provides for the future creation of giant cities in the form of continuous strips located along transport routes - ribbon cities encircling the globe. And, naturally, in such cities, buildings such as backlash buildings, bunker buildings and arcade buildings are conveniently and comfortably located.

The idea of Doxiadis had to be opposed to something concrete and at the same time quite universal. It is not surprising that the idea of an ecological city—an ecopolis—emerged in several countries at the same time in the late 70s. Strictly speaking, the tempting-sounding word did not mean too much at first, except for the clearly expressed tendency in it - to see the city as an inhabited territory and at the same time the central core of a larger inhabited territory. However, this is not a little, since for the first time, urban planners, together with ecologists and the public, began to mean by the word “habitat” something more than a person’s development of a “niche” for his immediate needs.

Rice. 3 Project of the Penang Global CITY CENTER complex (world city center of Penang Island)

The city exists in a natural context, transformed economic activity people, and therefore the development of an ecopolis certainly means the desire to transfer the city to “waste-free technology”. The task is clear - to minimize, and ideally completely eliminate, any harmful impact of the city on its environment. Previously, it seemed acceptable to divert or transport its solid, liquid and gaseous waste away from the city. Over time, it became clear that there is no such distance that would guarantee the city itself from the “boomerang” effect, not to mention the inadmissibility of “exporting” harmful substances into the natural environment. Atmospheric flows and underground waters do not respect boundaries: you can take water three dozen kilometers from a suburban park and after a few years you will be convinced that there is not enough water for its fountains; you can lay reclamation canals far from the city and after a short period of time find that the city basements begin to fill with water or, on the contrary, the trees of the city park begin to dry out.

Everyone who is professionally concerned about solving the city’s problems has been hit by such an avalanche new information that it was difficult not to get confused. Moreover, in order to fully implement the recommendations of socio-ecologists, not so much gigantic additional funds What a huge amount of additional work - both intellectual and physical.

It turned out that without the direct participation of thousands and thousands of citizens in the process of habitation and reconstruction of the city on its way to an ecopolis, it is in principle impossible to achieve the goal. But people agree to voluntarily give up their energy and time only when the purpose and meaning of the work is clear to them, when the purpose and meaning become their own, internal for them. It turned out naturally that the movement of citizens in defense of their right to participate in making urban planning decisions meets with an increasingly realized need of city authorities and the experts they hire. The dialogue between designers, scientists, administrators and those who were recently called consumers in a rather offensive manner, thereby acquires the character of an objective necessity.

The path from the moment when a few enthusiasts are aware of the strategic task to the time when it is recognized by an active minority, and then by the majority of citizens, is not easy and long. However, there is no alternative. To implement the idea of an ecopolis in every city, large and small, we need not so much new means as new thinking. Sermons, lectures, and punishments will not help the matter - after all, we are talking about making ecopolis consciousness a natural moral norm. We are talking about getting used to the internal prohibition on barbaric action in relation to an ancient monument, or a living blade of grass, an animal or an insect, not because it threatens punishment or censure, but because it is impossible to think otherwise. We are talking about getting used to the internal need to participate in the formation of an ecopolis - not only by wielding a shovel or pruning shears, but also by researching, comprehending, discussing projects, making constructive proposals at all levels of the urban environment.

Does this mean that the architect-urban planner turns out to be an unnecessary figure? No, on the contrary, now it can unleash the full potential accumulated by the long history of the city. He, however, ceases to be a “priest” who creates projects and prescribes their strict observance. By the nature of his activities, he retains the role of initiator in dialogue with townspeople and acquires the additional role of an expert, capable of giving a technically competent form to proposals and critical comments coming from the townspeople themselves. An architect in our time has to acquire additional qualifications - projects and plans should be developed in a clear professional language, but in order for them to be understandable, they need to be translated into figurative and literary language, intelligible to every intelligent person. The ability to carry out this kind of “translation” accumulates quickly, and it’s time to move on from scattered experiments to normal practice. The authors of the book were among those who devoted a quarter of a century of work to activities of this kind, and we cannot but rejoice at the fact that the process of transforming the experiment into the norm has already begun. Counter traffic is also necessary. In order to “convict” a designer, it is enough to have one temperament, multiplied by some one simple thought (like the statement that “everything” that remains from the past should be preserved). In order to conduct a constructive dialogue with an architect, one should have an in-depth understanding of the nature of the city, of the language in which the life of the city can be reflected in full. Everyone today should have such an idea; without it, there is no full-fledged citizen.

Rice. 4 Moving City, architect R. Herron (1964)

Rice. 5 Project of an urban structure built according to the “Plugin City” principle

Bibliography

1. Kareev N.I. Foreword by the translation editor//Max Weber. City. - Pg., 1923. - P. 3-6.

2. Ginzburg M.Ya. Green City. Answer to Le Corbusier//Modern architecture. -- 1930. -- No. 1-2.

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Urbanization. The role of cities in the modern global economy

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