Urbanization (French Urbanisation, from Latin urbanus - urban) is a historical process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society, expressed in the predominant concentration of population, economy, culture, etc. in large cities, on the one hand, on the other, the spread of standards urban culture and general way of life to the countryside. The intensification of this process is closely related to industrialization. Urbanization had a huge impact on the resettlement of the population (a sharp reduction specific gravity rural population in favor of the city), its demographic and socio-professional structure, way of life and standard of living, etc. Historically, urbanization has been conditioned by the necessity and efficiency of concentration of various forms and types of activity (material and spiritual), communication, and strengthening of interconnections between various aspects of human life. It contributed to overcoming the cultural and social backwardness in rural settlements, the formation modern economy etc.

The process of urbanization went through two stages. The first is characterized by large movements of the rural population to cities, an increase in the number of cities, and the concentration and accumulation of economic and cultural potential in large cities. At the second stage, the existing standards of urban culture are disseminated through the mass media (press, radio, television) and their development by the population of small towns and rural settlements. Urbanization has drastically changed the nature of population settlement - its dotted form has been replaced by agglomerations. Settlement systems formed around the largest cities, drawing more and more new territories into the environment of influence.

Urbanization has a number of negative consequences: the balance in the distribution of the population across the territory is disturbed; environmental violations, problems of unhealthy living environment of the population - noise, air pollution, infectious danger, ultrasonic radiation, problems of transport, building compaction, etc.; negative social consequences - the growth of crime, drug addiction, prostitution, etc.

The process of urban population growth, the increase in the number of cities and their consolidation, the emergence of networks and systems of cities, and the increasing role of cities in the modern world is called urbanization. Urbanization is the most important socio-economic process of our time. There are three stages in its development:

1. First stage- XIX century. The process of urbanization has begun in Europe and North America;

2. first half of the 20th century. This stage is characterized by an acceleration in the growth of the urban population and the spread of urbanization to almost all regions of the world;

3. second half of the 20th century. This stage is characterized by an even greater acceleration of urban population growth, the development of large cities, the transition from a point city to an agglomeration (a territorial grouping of cities and rural settlements), as well as the formation of megalopolises (the merger of urban agglomerations), which leads to the spread of an urban lifestyle to a rural one. terrain.

Urbanization as a global process has common features that are characteristic of most countries.

Features of urbanization	Display examples
1. Rapid urban population growth	During the second half of the 20th century, the share of the urban population increased by 16% (at the same time, the number of urban population increases by 50 million people annually).
2. Population concentration mainly in big cities	At the beginning of the 20th century, there were 360 ​​large cities (over 100 thousand people), by now - more than 2500 The number of millionaire cities has exceeded 200. 20 cities in the world have a population of more than 10 million people.
3. "Sprawl" of cities, expansion of their territory	Formation of agglomerations. For example, Mexico City, Sao Paulo, Tokyo, New York with a population of 16-20 million people. Formation of megalopolises: Boswash (45 million people), Tokaido (60 million people), etc.

While there are common features, the process of urbanization in different countries has its own characteristics, which are expressed in the level and pace of urbanization.

According to the level of urbanization, we can distinguish:

The level of urbanization in different regions of the world is different. It is highest in North America, Foreign Europe, Latin America and Australia (71-75%); low level - in Foreign Asia (especially in South and Southeast) and Africa (27-34%).

The rate of urbanization differs sharply between developed and developing countries. In developing countries, the growth rate of the urban population is 4.5 times higher than in developed countries. They are highest in Africa and Foreign Asia, in countries where the level of urbanization today is the lowest. The high rate of urban growth in developing countries has been called the "urban explosion". It is accompanied by an increase in the number of large cities and millionaire cities.

A feature of the urbanization process in developed countries has become the phenomenon of suburbanization - the relocation of part of the urban population to the suburbs. In the US, 60% of the inhabitants of agglomerations live in the suburbs. This is due to the deterioration of environmental conditions in large cities, the rise in the cost of infrastructure.

Urbanization (French urbanisation, from Latin urbanus - urban, urbs - city), the historical process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society, which covers the socio-professional, demographic structure of the population, its Lifestyle, culture, placement produces, forces, resettlement, etc. U. has a huge impact on the development of various socio-economic formations and states, it is with cities that the main achievements of civilization are associated.

In the 3rd-1st millennium BC. e. cities appeared in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Syria, India, Asia Minor, China; Athens, Rome, Carthage played a huge role in the Greco-Roman world. In the cities of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, elements of the capitalist mode of production and bourgeois culture were formed. Strengthening of the U. process in the 19th century. caused an increase in the concentration of the population in cities, which was made possible due to the growth of industry, the intensification of agriculture, the development of means of transport and communications, medicine, etc. K. Marx noted the role of "urban relations", the penetration of which into the countryside characterizes "recent history" (see K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 46, part 1, p. 470).

Between 1926 and early 1975 the urban population of the USSR increased almost 5.8 times, from 26.3 million to 153.1 million people. By mid-1976, his share was 62%.

The share of the urban population in other regions of the world was (by 1970): in foreign Europe - 63.6%, foreign Asia - 24.7%, Africa - 22.3%, North. America - 74.5%, Latin America - 56.2%, Australia and Oceania - 67.9% of the total population. In individual developed capitalist countries, the proportion of the urban population was: in the USA - 73.5%, Germany - 82.2%, Great Britain - 79.1%, France - 70% (1968), Italy - 51.5%. During 1965–70, the number of city dwellers in the world grew 1.5–2.5 times faster than the entire population of the world (see Table 1).

Tab. 1. - Dynamics of the urban population of the world in 1800-1970

Year	The entire population of the world, million people	Urban population, million people			Share in the entire population of the world,%
		Total	including in cities with a population of:		Total urban population	population of cities with:
			20 thousand people and more	100 thousand people and more		20 thousand people and more	100 thousand people and more
1800	906	29,3	23,5	16,6	3,0	2,4	1,7
1850	1171	80,8	54,3	29,0	6,4	4,3	2,3
1900	1608	224,4	151,8	90,8	13,6	9,2	5,5
1950	2400	706,4	566,7	406,0	28,2	22,7	16,2
1970	3628	1399,0	1169,5	863,9	38,6	32,2	23,8

U., the development of cities is caused by the objective need to concentrate and integrate various forms and types of material and spiritual activities, communication, strengthening ties between various spheres of production, science and culture, which, in turn, increases the intensity and efficiency of social processes. These processes are most effective in the largest urban centers, large cities, where the interaction of socio-political, economic, scientific and technical factors, cultural traditions, various segments of the population, etc. is especially fruitful. It was in the largest urban centers that advanced social ideas and movements arose and concentrated. K. Marx and F. Engels emphasized the role of cities in the development of the working-class movement (see ibid., vol. 2, p. 354; vol. 23, p. 514). “The capitals or the largest commercial and industrial centers in general...,” wrote V.I. Lenin, “to a large extent decide the political fate of the people...” (Poln. sobr. soch., 5th ed., vol. 40, p. .6–7).

At the present stage of Ukraine, there is a tendency towards an increase in the concentration of the population in large cities (100,000 people or more). In the USSR in 1970, 31.2% of the total population lived in such cities, 45.6% in Great Britain, and 48.2% in Japan. A special place in this process is occupied by the growth of "millionaire" cities, the number of which in the world is about 150, including 14 in the USSR (1976).

The W. process has two sides, or "phases." In the first "phase" there is a concentration and accumulation of the economic and cultural potential of society in large urban centers, which creates conditions for the formation of the highest achievements and examples of material and spiritual activity. In the second "phase" these achievements are mastered by other, non-central cities and rural settlements, which, in turn, gives a new impetus to building the capacity of the main centers.

The effectiveness of this two-pronged process depends on the socio-economic nature of society. Under capitalism, the interaction of the two sides of U. is disrupted; social disunity opposes the integrative nature of urbanism; the clash of antagonistic interests of classes and social groups, private ownership of land, and the opposition between centers and stagnant peripheries give rise to an urban crisis. U.'s process has a spontaneous character. In the big cities of the capitalist countries, the problems of unemployment and crime are becoming especially acute; In this regard, anti-urban sentiments are intensifying in bourgeois society (for example, "anti-urbanism" in the USA).

The U. process plays an important role in developing countries. For all its complexity and pain (the rapid concentration in cities of the rural population unprepared for "urban" work, limited material resources, etc.), it contributes to the formation of a modern economy, overcoming backwardness and diversity, national consolidation, and the development of the socio-political structure of society.

Under socialism, real prerequisites are created for the management of Ukraine and the harmonious interaction of its two sides. The positive patterns of urban processes and the integrative tendencies of U. find a favorable basis in the system public relations socialist society. U., big cities play a leading role in strengthening the social homogeneity of socialist society, spreading advanced morality, overcoming patriarchal survivals, and so on. Differences in the concentration of the population and the distribution of the potential of individual cities that arise due to the objective unevenness of urban processes, the uneven impact on the natural environment in large and small settlements, as well as other internal contradictions and complexities of urbanization (problems of transport, noise, compacted buildings, etc.) are overcome with the help of national economic and social planning on the basis of constant deepening of the mutual influence of the center and the periphery, regulated, proportional development of all settlements. The process of assimilation by all members of society, by all regions of the country, of the higher material and spiritual values ​​accumulated in the largest economic and cultural centers is expanding. Thus, it becomes possible to use the advantages of U. with the simultaneous neutralization of its negative consequences.

At the present stage, urbanization is changing in the nature of the concentration of the population, its "point" form giving way to agglomerations. Entire systems of settlements are rapidly developing around the largest cities, drawing ever new areas into the orbit of direct influence of the country's main centers of economy and culture. In the USSR, the number of agglomerations (according to some estimates) approaches 70 (see Table 2).

Tab. 2. - Some of the largest urban agglomerations of the USSR (1970)

Name	Area, thousand km 2	Number of urban settlements	Population, million people
			Total	urban	rural
Moscow	8,4	81	10,6	9,7	0,9
Leningradskaya	6,6	55	4,4	4,3	0,1
Gorky	3,2	28	1,9	1,8	0,1
Donetsk	4,1	61	1,8	1,7	0,1
Kharkiv	4,5	46	1,7	1,6	0,1
Sverdlovsk	4,3	32	1,6	1,5	0,1

U., "urban relations" stimulate cultural processes, play a huge role in the formation of personality in a developed socialist society. At the present stage, in the era of the scientific and technological revolution, with the increasing role of various social information, the urban lifestyle becomes the most important part of urban culture. A large selection of social contacts, the development of communication processes in a saturated urban environment contribute to the socio-cultural rapprochement of various social strata and groups of socialist society, broadening one's horizons, raising the level of awareness, education, general culture, etc. Urban culture becomes the basis for overcoming significant differences between the city and the countryside.

One of the most important features of the urban lifestyle is the desire of a person to constantly update information and contacts in the areas of professional activity, culture, personal communication, etc. The development and specialization of social needs, the spatial mobility of the population reinforce the "translocal" tendencies of urban culture. The importance of local activities in the city, "neighborly" contacts is decreasing. The role of the centers of the largest cities and agglomerations, which are the focus of social activity, is increasing, centripetal tendencies are becoming one of the main factors in the integration of the socio-spatial organism of the city. K. Marx wrote that “the very existence of a city as such differs from a simple multiplicity of independent houses. Here the whole is not just the sum of its parts. It is a kind of independent organism” (K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 46, part 1, p. 470). Under the conditions of a socialist society, the possibility of the most complete inclusion of a person (along with family, production, and other groups and collectives) into a single urban community is realized.

A special role in expanding the scope of urbanization and urban culture is played by the means of transport, communications and mass media (press, radio, television), which introduce the inhabitants of peripheral areas, small towns and rural settlements to the values ​​of large cities, change their cultural orientation. Various types of migration to areas of large urban centers are increasing, and the process of population concentration in agglomerations is intensifying. Under socialism, prerequisites are created in the areas of the largest cities and agglomerations for overcoming the limited consumer attitude to the natural environment. Nature becomes part of urban culture, urbanization harmonizes the interaction of social and natural processes proper.

The need to resolve the ecological, sociocultural, urban planning, and other problems that arise in the course of urbanization requires constant improvement in the management of this process in a socialist society. Mastering the most essential laws and mechanisms of U. increases the effectiveness of this control.

Lecture №11

Ecological and hygienic problems of dwellings.

Problems of urbanization

Plan:

1. Ecological and hygienic problems of urbanization.

2. The state of health of the urban population.

3. General hygiene requirements for housing.

4. Hygienic bases of rational lighting.

5. The microclimate of dwellings and the characteristics of various types of heating.

6. Air mode in the room, ventilation.

Environmental consequences economic activity people are seen everywhere. They are very diverse and can be significantly separated from the direct sources of impact on the natural environment both in space and time, but they are most pronounced in urban areas, and especially in large cities.

Urbanized habitats are the complication and expansion of the urban environment, its transformation into real immediate living conditions for an increasing part of the world's population. In connection with the process of urbanization, more and more people are becoming city dwellers .

Urbanization as a socio-historical concept has established itself in recent decades. The term "urbanization" is understood as a world historical process associated with the development of productive forces and forms of social communication. It is associated with the structural transformation of existing cities and villages based on the development of industry, transport, housing construction spreading the urban lifestyle to the most remote corners of the country. One of the earliest manifestations of the process of urbanization should be considered the rapid growth of cities, an increase in the number of inhabitants in them with a simultaneous increase in their social role. At the same time, the proportion of the rural population naturally decreases. Consequently, urbanization is a process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society, which covers not only the social, demographic structure of the population, but also its way of life, culture, distribution of productive forces, resettlement. Urbanization has a huge impact on the development of various socio-economic formations and states, since the main achievements of civilization are associated with cities.

At the present stage of urbanization, there is especially a tendency towards population growth in large cities (100,000 people or more). A special place in this process is occupied by the growth of giant cities with a million inhabitants.

The share of large cities on the globe has increased over the past hundred years (since 1860) from 1.7 to 20%, and over the past 20 years the growth of large cities has exploded. In 1700 there were 31 cities in the world with a population of more than 100 thousand inhabitants, in 1970 there were already 1726 of them.

In 1800 there was not a single city with a population of more than 1 million, in 1970 there were more than 130 such cities with a million inhabitants, and in 1985, according to the UN, there were 270 of them; by the beginning of the third millennium, 400 millionaire cities were predicted.

A city in a number of European countries is understood as a settlement with more than 250 inhabitants, in Japan - 30 thousand, in our country - from 5 to 12 thousand inhabitants. Various countries use multiple criteria for defining a city, which include population size, population or development density, predominant type of occupation of the population, historical status of the city, administrative functions or other criteria, or combinations of these criteria.

The concentration of population in large cities contributes to the rapid development of urban agglomerations. The largest - Moscow - has 11 million people, concentrating around Moscow. Neighboring agglomerations (Nizhny Novgorod, Yaroslavl, Ivanovo, Tula) form the most significant urbanized area of ​​the country with an area of ​​220,000 sq. km. and a population of 26 million people (1979).

The urban environment as an artificially created human habitat is becoming a daily reality for the existence of an ever-increasing part of the world's population. Urbanization should be considered as an objective process of the development of society, which has its own cause-and-effect relationships and contains many positive characteristics. However, the urbanization of the habitat, the non-stop restructuring of the real environment of life in the direction of its complexity and the growth of artificial components cannot be optimal for a person. Modern scientists note the following features of the urban environment:

· in a city, and especially in a large city, a person is exposed to numerous and multiplying adverse effects;

The urban environment alienates a person not only from nature, it separates a person from a person;

Large cities also have a negative impact on the surrounding countryside, since their normal functioning requires a huge number of different products and services.

When analyzing the problems of interaction between a person and his natural environment in a modern large city, three groups of problems can be distinguished.

Firstly, problems associated with the impact of anthropogenically modified environment on the urban population.

Secondly, problems arising from the impact of the polluted environment of cities on natural systems, both in the cities themselves and in the territories adjacent to them.

Third, problems resulting from the impact of the polluted environment of cities on their material and technical facilities.

Cities are the centers of spiritual life, they contain the latest achievements of science and technology, cultural monuments. Life in the city has a number of indisputable advantages: comfortable housing with a range of sanitary and hygienic services; wide opportunities for education, obtaining a specialty and choosing a job, cultural development; greater accessibility medical care- from the first medical to specialized. Unfortunately, life in the city also has its downsides. These include, for example, the need for long journeys in urban transport and the specific fatigue associated with it.

A person living in a large city, even when moving over short distances, is forced to use public and individual means of transport. In addition, a resident of a large city uses transport to travel to suburban recreational areas. Constant traffic jams and congestion of highways are one of the most acute problems of large cities. One billion dollars is spent on workers paying medical bills and sick days due to additional environmental pollution.

An accelerated rhythm of life, combined with a distinctly pronounced inactivity (physical inactivity); isolation of citizens from the natural environment and, accordingly, a longer stay in an anthropogenically modified environment. The most negative side of urban life is the low quality of the natural environment (water, air, vegetation), its saturation with physical, chemical and biological pollutants. All these factors form negative, abiological tendencies in the way of life and health of citizens, cause "diseases of civilization".

Negative shifts in the state of health of various groups of the population living in cities are very significant. First of all, this applies to diseases of the cardiovascular system.

In economically developed countries, they lead to more than 50% mortality and 30% disability of the population. A clearly unfavorable trend in this type of pathology should be considered its rejuvenation. The increase in the incidence of the heart and blood vessels at the age of 30-49 is especially great.

Another unfavorable shift is the growth of malignant neoplasms, mainly due to cancer of the lungs and respiratory tract. These diseases most often affect urban residents, especially smokers. There is a direct correlation between the size of the city (number of inhabitants) and the incidence of lung cancer.

Another unfavorable shift in the state of health should be considered the increase in allergic diseases, and again, mainly among the urban population.

In large industrial cities, the incidence of allergic diseases ranges from 10 to 20%, while in rural areas - only 2 - 4%. The growth of allergic diseases among children of the urban population is especially alarming. Of course, the negative point is the growth of injuries, which ranks third among the causes of death (after diseases of the cardiovascular system and malignant diseases) among the entire population and second in relation to the working-age population.

Socio-economic, environmental and biological factors of a big city that affect health are very numerous and diverse. However, among them in the first place should be put contradicting the biological needs of the body, trends in the modern way of life.

Abiological trends in the living conditions of urban residents are mainly associated with pollution of the natural environment by xenobiotics (chemical substances alien to the biosphere), physical and biological pollution.

The state of health of the urban population. Urbanization generates direct and indirect factors affecting the birth rate and average life expectancy of the population. Following the quantitative change in the population in modern cities its structure also changes.

The degree of air pollution in cities causes the spread of chronic non-specific diseases, among which chronic bronchitis, pulmonary emphysema, bronchial asthma, lung cancer, etc. are of significant importance. Not only changes in the structure of morbidity, but also an increase in mortality are noteworthy.

Convincing data on the impact of atmospheric pollution on the child's body and, in particular, the respiratory system.

In urban areas, the incidence of bronchitis is almost 2 times higher than in rural areas.

The peculiarities of the spread of infectious diseases are also associated with living conditions in cities. The dependence of the scale of influenza outbreaks on the frequency of contacts of the population in cities, especially large ones, has been established.

Differences in lifestyle, physical activity, nutrition and work between urban and rural residents affect the physical development of the population. It should be noted that the physical development of students in rural schools is better than that of their peers living in large cities. This is explained by the fact that students in rural schools are more engaged in physical labor, more often in the field, forest, bathe in rivers, etc., which affects the level of morbidity.

The change in the rhythm of life in the city affects work, sleep, and rest. The intensity of the labor process increases, and at the same time the physical and mental stress. New dynamic stereotypes are created. In some cases, the new environment causes the development of neuroses.

The twenty-first century is the century of urbanization, when there is a rapid change not only of the person himself, but also a change in the system of values, norms of behavior, and intelligence. This phenomenon covers the social and demographic structure of the population, its way of life, culture. It is not difficult to understand what urbanization is, it is important to know what consequences it brings.

Urbanization - what is it?

Urbanization is the increase in urban settlements and the spread of an urban lifestyle to the entire part of the settlements. Urbanization is a multilateral process based on the historically established forms of social and territorial division of labor. Urbanization means the growth of big cities, increasing the urban population in the country. This concentration is closely related to false urbanization.

In different countries, the increase in settlements takes place with different dynamics, so all countries of the world are conditionally divided into three groups:

• high level of urbanization - 73%;
• medium - more than 32%;
• low - less than 32%.

According to this division, Canada is classified in the fourth ten in terms of urbanization, here its level is more than 80%. In Russia, the level is 73%, although the increase in settlements is not always associated with positive aspects. In our country, this level arose due to significant contradictions:

• inability of host cities to adequately address the issue of migration;
• difficult economic situation;
• instability in the political sphere;
• inequalities in the development of regions, when residents from villages tend to megacities.

False urbanization

False urbanization is rapid population growth without sufficient job growth, resulting in crowds of unemployed people, and lack of housing leading to unsettled, unsanitary urban outskirts. This phenomenon often affects the countries of Africa and Latin America, where, along with a high concentration of the population, the standard of living is everywhere low. The increased social tension increases the growth of crime.

Causes of urbanization

Global urbanization has led to the fact that the rural population from nearby villages and small towns is increasingly turning to large cities for domestic or cultural issues. There are the following reasons for urbanization at the present time:

1. Development of industrial production in large cities.
2. An excess of labor force.
3. More favorable living conditions in big cities compared to rural ones.
4. Formation of wide suburban areas.

Pros and cons of urbanization

The quality of urban life is directly related to how reasonable the level of increase in settlements is, the positive and negative aspects of urbanization. If this level rises sharply, the quality of urban life drops significantly, jobs disappear in the city. Therefore, an important place here is occupied by the infrastructure of the city and the level of trade, the level of income of urban residents, their security. Also, another factor in urban life is environmental safety, its level.

To understand what urbanization is, it is necessary to look at its positive and negative sides. For example, Russia is currently undergoing a difficult transition period, when irreversible processes are taking place in the countryside. Only with the help of a certain state policy, a balanced settlement of people in cities, it is possible to preserve national traditions and culture.

Pros of urbanization

Most of the population lives in large cities and the reason for this was the positive aspects of urbanization:

• Increasing labor productivity;
• Creating places for scientific research and rest;
• Qualified medical care;
• Sanitary and hygienic conditions.

Cons of urbanization

To date, settlements have begun to grow dramatically. This process is accompanied by the growth of large cities, environmental pollution, and deterioration of living conditions in the regions. The atmosphere of large cities contains a higher concentration of toxic substances compared to rural areas. All this caused the negative aspects of urbanization and led to:

• imbalance in the distribution of the population in the territory;
• absorption by large cities of the most fertile and productive parts of the planet;
• environmental violation;
• noise pollution;
• transport problems;
• building compaction;
• a decrease in the birth rate;
• the rise in unemployment.

Urbanization and its consequences

Due to the fact that most of the rural residents moved to big cities, agriculture ceased to satisfy all the needs of the population. And in order to increase the productivity of soil production began the use of artificial fertilizers. Such an irrational approach led to the fact that the soil was oversaturated with heavy metal compounds. In the twentieth century, the population lost stability in the process of growth. The impact of urbanization has led to large-scale development of energy, industry and agriculture.

Environmental impacts of urbanization

Urbanization is considered the main factor in environmental pollution, residents of big cities call them smogopolises, they pollute the atmosphere by 75%. Scientists have studied the chemical impact of urbanization on nature and found that the plume of polluting effects from large cities can be traced at a distance of fifty kilometers. The lack of necessary funds is a serious obstacle to improving the urban environment, the transition to low-waste technologies, the construction of processing plants.

The car is the biggest source of air pollution. The main harm comes from carbon monoxide, in addition to this, people feel the negative impact of carbohydrates, nitrogen oxides, photochemical oxidants. An urbanized person is daily exposed to oxygen deficiency, irritation of the mucous membranes, deep respiratory tract, resulting in pulmonary edema, colds, bronchitis, lung cancer, coronary disease, congenital malformations.

Impact of urbanization on the biosphere

The growth of urban settlements has a negative impact on the biosphere, from year to year this impact is increasing. Traffic fumes Vehicle, emissions from industrial enterprises, heat and power plants - all these are consequences of urbanization, due to which nitrogen dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, ozone, saturated hydrocarbons, benzapyrene, and dust enter the atmosphere. In the major cities of the world, they have already stopped paying attention to smog. Not many people fully understand what urbanization is and what danger it poses. If city streets were planted with greenery, the negative impact on the biosphere would decrease.

As technospherization grows, the natural foundations of the biosphere, which is responsible for the reproduction and spread of life on Earth, are removed. At the same time, as humanity gradually moves to technogenesis, the biospheric biological substance is significantly transformed, which negatively affects the organisms formed from it. Artificially created technosphere-biological components can evolve independently and cannot be eliminated from the natural environment.

Impact of urbanization on public health

By creating an urban system, people create an artificial environment around them that increases the comfort of life. But it takes people away from the natural environment and disrupts natural ecosystems. The negative impact of urbanization on human health is manifested by the fact that physical activity decreases, nutrition becomes irrational, low-quality products lead to obesity and diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases develop. The urban environment negatively affects the physical and psychosomatic health of people.

Most urbanized countries

In ancient times, the most urbanized city was Jericho, where approximately two thousand people lived nine thousand years ago. Today, this number can be attributed to a large village or a small town. If we reduce the number of people living in the ten most populated cities of the planet to one whole, then the sum will be almost two hundred and sixty million people, which is 4% of the total population of the planet.

Essay

Topic: “The impact of urbanization on the environment”

Completed by: Student gr. XXXXXX

Tula 2003

Introduction

One of the most characteristic features development modern society is the rapid growth of cities, the continuous rate of increase in the number of their inhabitants, the increase in the role of cities in society, the transformation of rural areas into urban areas, as well as the migration of the rural population to cities.

The relevance of this topic is as follows:

Most citizens of the world are born city dwellers;

· At the beginning of the third millennium, five and a half billion out of seven billion people live in cities;

Urbanization affects the ecological state of the environment.

The purpose of the abstract is:

1. Define the concept of urbanization and ecology;

2. Determine the prerequisites for urbanization;

3. To reveal the effect of anthropogenic factors on nature and man;

In the abstract, I used the works of such scientists as:, and

2. The concept of ecology and urbanization.

Ecology is the science of the patterns of relationships between organisms, species and communities with the environment, considered as a branch of biology (bioecology), and in the modern sense (global ecology) is a complex scientific discipline about the relationship between man, nature and society.

One of the most characteristic features of the development of modern society is the rapid growth of cities and the continuous rate of increase in the number of their inhabitants, that is, urbanization is underway. It seems to entail the most significant social transformations in. the history of mankind.

Urbanization (from Latin urbanus - urban) is the process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society. Special urban relations cover the socio-professional and demographic structure of the population, its way of life, the location of production and resettlement.

3. Prerequisites for urbanization.

The prerequisites for urbanization are: the growth of industry, the deepening of the territorial division of labor, the development of the cultural and political functions of cities.

Urbanization is characterized by an influx of the rural population into cities and an increasing pendulum movement of people from the rural environment and nearby small towns to large ones (for work, for cultural and domestic needs).

Cities have existed since ancient times, but urban civilization arose only in our century. If the population of the planet as a whole doubles in 35 years, then the urban population - in 11 years. Moreover, the largest centers are growing twice as fast as small towns.

At the beginning of the 19th century, only 29.3 million people (3% of the world's population) lived in the cities of the world; by 1900, 4 million (13.6%); by 1950 gmln, (28.8%);

and to 1 million (41.1%). It can be said that now most of the world's citizens are born city dwellers. The proportion of the urban population in Europe is 69%, in Asia - 38%, in Africa - 20%, in North America - 75%, in Latin America - 65%, in Australia and Oceania - 76%. The share of the urban population is especially high in developed countries: in the USA - about 73%, in France - 78%, in Germany - about 85%, in Great Britain - 91%. A country is considered almost completely urbanized if 4/5 of its population lives in cities. An example is the United Kingdom, which has seen a relative stability of the urban and rural population for 35 years. At the same time, in Africa and Asia, the processes of urbanization are currently particularly dynamic, which is associated with the rapid development of the states of these continents. In developing countries, the process of urbanization is characterized not only by pace, but also by heterogeneity - the rapid growth of the largest cities occurs with a moderate growth of medium and stagnation of small ones. It is to large centers that migrating flows from if. because only such cities have the necessary infrastructure for new industrial construction.

At current fertility rates, by the beginning of the next millennium, out of a projected total world population of 7 billion, 5.5 will live in cities. A continuous urban world is being formed. Some urban agglomerations have long acquired hypertrophied dimensions - they have become megacities. For example, by 1960, about 25% of the population of Mexico already lived in Mexico City, almost 30% of the population of Argentina lived in Buenos Aires, and more than half of the population of Uruguay lived in Montevideo. According to demographic projections, by the year 2000 b0% of the US population will live in three metropolitan areas: in the city consisting of San Francisco and San Diego (about 20 million people); in the city that unites Chicago and Pittsburgh (about 20 million), and in the city that unites Boston, New York and Washington (about 80 million). The last metropolis will be a strip of continuous 800-kilometer buildings, futurologists predict that such conglomerates will occupy vast areas of the continents and, first of all, their coastline.

4. The effect of anthropogenic factors on nature and man.

In large cities, both positive and negative sides of scientific and technological progress and industrialization were intertwined. A new ecological environment with a high concentration of anthropogenic factors has been created. Some of them, such as air pollution, high noise levels, electromagnetic radiation, are a direct product of industrialization, others, such as the concentration of enterprises in a limited area, high density population, migration processes, etc., are a consequence of urbanization as a form of settlement.

Human health largely depends on the quality of both the natural and anthropogenic environment. In the conditions of a large city, the influence of the natural component on a person is weakened, and the effect of anthropogenic factors is sharply increased. Cities, in which a large number of people, vehicles and various enterprises are concentrated in relatively small areas, are centers of man-made impact on nature. Gas and dust emissions from industrial enterprises, their discharge into the surrounding water bodies Wastewater, municipal and domestic waste of a large city pollute the environment with a variety of chemical elements. In most industrial dusts and wastes, the content of such elements as mercury, lead, cadmium, zinc, tin, copper, tungsten, antimony, bismuth, etc., is hundreds, thousands and tens of thousands of times higher than in natural soils. Soils around Monchegorsk are contaminated with nickel and cobalt exceeding the maximum allowable concentration (MAC) by more than 10 times, and around Bratsk, Novokuznetsk, Volgograd and Krasnoyarsk - with fluorine exceeding the MAC by 10-30 times.

The atmospheric route of entry of toxic substances into the human body is the leading one, since during the day it consumes about 15 kg of air, 2.5 kg of water and about 1.5 kg of food, in addition, during inhalation, chemical elements are absorbed by the body most intensively. Thus, lead from air is absorbed by the blood by approximately 60%, while from water - by 10%, and from food - only by 5%. Atmospheric pollution is responsible for up to 30% of the general diseases of the population of industrial centers. According to the data contained in the State report on the state of nature in Russia (1991), only 15% of city dwellers live in areas with an acceptable level of air pollution. In connection with the development in cities of various types of industry, especially chemical, an increasing amount of harmful substances is emitted into the atmosphere. So, in the products and emissions of chemical enterprises in Ufa, Shchelkovo, Noginsk, Chapaevsk, Dzerzhinsk. in the ashes of waste incineration enterprises in Moscow, Murmansk, as well as a number of other cities, an increased content of dioxins harmful to health has been established.

Clouds of black smoke first enveloped many cities in Europe and America in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Leader industrial revolution- Great Britain ranked first in air pollution. London became famous for its dense fog, which gave a peculiar flavor to detective stories, but shortened the lives of many citizens. However, in the early days of industrialization, the extent of the health effects of air pollution was not determined, because during this period, as a result of improved sanitation and nutrition, there was a sharp decrease in deaths from infectious diseases, which masked the harm caused by polluted air. In 1943, residents of Los Angeles began to complain about the periodic appearance of an annoying light blue haze in the air. Experts have established its connection with the presence of sulfur dioxide. The industrial release of this substance was reduced, but the haze over the city continued to appear. Studies have shown that carbohydrates contained in gasoline vapors, interacting with other pollutants, form new compounds under the action of sunlight. The city administration decided to eliminate the leakage of gases from the gas storages of numerous oil refineries, but the haze over the city did not disappear. Then it became clear that air pollutants are cars. So the world was introduced to photochemical oxidizers - ozone compounds with various substances that are formed by the interaction of hydrocarbons with nitrogen oxides emitted by cars and energy enterprises in sunlight.

The term "smog" was first applied to a cloud hanging over Los Angeles. With the increase in the number of cars, a similar phenomenon began to be observed over other cities.

Currently, the car is in first place in terms of absolute emissions of gases. It is the source of almost half of the air pollutants. Carbon monoxide causes the main harm, but carbohydrates, nitrogen oxides contained in exhaust gases, and photochemical oxidizers also negatively affect the human body.

In Russia, Moscow is the leader in transport emissions - 801 thousand tons per year and St. Petersburg - 244 thousand tons, followed by Krasnodar - 150 thousand tons. Nitrogen oxides form acids upon contact with the moist surface of the lungs, and those, in turn, - nitrates and nitrites. Both the acids themselves and their derivatives irritate the mucous membranes, especially the deep sections of the respiratory tract, which can lead to reflex respiratory disorders and even pulmonary edema. In addition, nitrates and nitrites convert oxyhemoglobin to methaemoglobin, which causes. oxygen deficiency.

Among the sources of pollution that adversely affect human health, the car plays a significant, but not the main role. Automobiles cause 10-25% of diseases, although, as we have said, they produce almost half of all air pollutants. Sulfur oxides and various fine particles (mixtures of soot, ash, dust, droplets of sulfuric acid, asbestos fibers, etc.) cause more diseases than car exhaust gases. They enter the atmosphere from power plants, factories and residential buildings. Sulfur oxides and dust particles are usually concentrated in places where coal is burned most intensively, they are dangerous, mainly in winter, when more fuel is burned. Photochemical smog, on the other hand, is denser in the summer. In Russia, sulfur dioxide is emitted into the atmosphere most of all in Norilsk - 2.4 million tons per year, and fine particulate matter - in the city of Asbest (240 thousand tons per year). It has been proven that a high concentration of sulfur oxides and fine particles aggravates the course of chronic respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. The most dramatic examples of air pollution: in the Meuse Valley in Belgium, 1930 sick, 60 dead; in Donora, Pennsylvania, 1948 cases, 20 deaths; in London, 1952 cases, 4000 deaths. In each of these cases, mortality increased or decreased in accordance with changes in air pollution, regardless of climatic conditions, and was the result of pre-existing cardiovascular and respiratory diseases.

Polluted air primarily affects the lungs, the most dangerous are sulfur oxides and small particles. Among respiratory diseases, acute ones are distinguished (colds, bronchitis, pneumonia). In all countries, respiratory diseases account for more cases than all other diseases combined. Catarrh of the upper respiratory tract is still the most common disease. \

Environmental pollution also affects the occurrence of diseases such as lung cancer, although the main role in the pathogenesis of this disease belongs to smoking. For residents of large cities, the likelihood of this disease is about 20-30% higher than for people living in villages or small towns. A relationship has been established between the content of particulate matter in the air and the incidence of stomach and prostate cancer. It is assumed that nitrogen oxides in the air combine with other pollutants to form nitrosamines, substances that are among the most active carcinogens. In Moscow alone, about 120,000 tons of nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere every year. Apparently, radioactive particles scattered around the world in connection with nuclear weapons testing and the activities of nuclear power plants also take part in the occurrence of lung cancer. Among the various radioactive substances, plutonium is the most dangerous, characterized by a very slow decay. After the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant on the territory of the Russian Federation in 14 regions - Bryansk, Belgorod, Voronezh, Kaluga, Kursk, Lipetsk, Leningrad, Oryol, Ryazan, Tambov, Tula, Penza, Smolensk, Ulyanovsk - and the Mordovian Republic, pollution zones of almost 55 .1 thousand km2. Data have been obtained on the effect of air pollution on mortality from coronary disease. During periods of extreme pollution, there are especially many such cases. The reason lies partly in the fact that shortness of breath increases the workload on the heart. Another explanation is the negative effect of carbon monoxide on the heart.

A connection between atmospheric air pollution and the growth of diseases of a genetic nature has been found, while the level of congenital malformations in industrial cities depends not only on the intensity of pollution, but also on the nature of atmospheric emissions. A number of chemicals have a mutagenic effect, which can manifest itself in an increase in the frequency of chromosomal aberrations in somatic and germ cells, which leads to neoplasms, spontaneous abortions, perinatal fetal death, developmental anomalies and infertility. In contaminated areas, adverse pregnancies and childbirth are more common. Children born after abnormal pregnancies in polluted areas are often underweight. body and level of physical development, as well as functional abnormalities of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems.

A multidirectional effect of factors of varying intensity on a person is noted. Thus, a high degree of air pollution causes a slowdown in the processes of growth and development, an increase in disharmony due to an increase in fat deposition, and low concentrations of harmful substances activate the processes of acceleration. Comparison of anthropometric data in children showed that height, body weight and chest circumference in an area with polluted air is greater than in areas with a lesser degree of pollution. This phenomenon testifies to the possible stimulation of physical development by the influence of unfavorable external factors of low intensity (height and body weight reach the greatest values ​​in areas with an average degree of pollution). However, this acceleration of physical development is accompanied by a noticeable weakening of the efficiency of the cardiovascular system.

A relationship has been found between the content of toxic substances in the blood, urine, hair and other tissues of people with the degree of their harmful effect on the body. The concentration of a substance in tissues and secretions is an indicator of the degree of adverse effects on the body. Relationships between the levels of cadmium and lead in the hair of schoolchildren and their mental development were revealed. The most common of the toxic heavy metals is lead, as it is found in gasoline. Airborne nickel, cadmium, beryllium and mercury are relatively rare, but in some areas they pose a serious threat. Moreover, it is especially dangerous that the accumulation of these metals in the body begins with a pollution level that is much lower than the MPC.

Air pollution has aroused more concern in people than any other form of environmental destruction. Air pollution prevention programs in large cities were slow to implement, costly and often violated. Nevertheless, they brought certain results: for example, Londoners now see the sun 70% more often than in 1958. Currently, most developed countries are engaged in the elimination of the main sources of air pollution. Conversion of power plants from coal to oil and natural gas significantly reduced the emission of sulfur oxides. Improvements in the design of automobiles have reduced the emission of gases containing carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. Where measures are taken to combat air pollution, improvements in public health can also be noted.

An additional source of chemicals for the body of urban residents is agricultural products. Cultivated near cities, it is polluted with fertilizers and pesticides (they often exceed reasonable levels), as well as precipitation, sometimes containing the entire periodic table. Technogenic fluxes in the atmosphere are reflected in the composition and spatial distribution of atmospheric precipitation recorded by snow cover or soil. The general level of dust in cities is 30-40 times higher than the background, and near industrial enterprises there are anomalous areas, the pollution of which is 600 times higher than the background. even in new microdistricts of large cities, relatively remote from industrial zones, the content of chemical elements in fallout is 2–3 times higher than in background conditions, and directly in industrial production zones, their content increases by 10–20 times; creating emergency situations.

The degree of soil pollution is most intense near non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises (450 times higher than the background), instrument-making (300 times) and ferrous metallurgy (250 times) and less intense near machine-building and chemical enterprises. Concentrations of pollutants in the atmosphere decrease exponentially with distance from their source, thus, soils are polluted with the same concentration gradient - from the center to the periphery, which leads to a high degree of pollution of residential areas adjacent to enterprises.

Chemicals used in agriculture - pesticides, herbicides, which occupy the first place in environmental pollution, have a significant impact on soil pollution. The residual amount of pesticides was found in 20% of samples taken in the soils of 198 thousand hectares of agricultural land in Russia in 1991. Second place is occupied by heavy metals, which are far ahead of such widespread pollutants as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, petroleum products and photochemical oxidants.

There is a relationship between the geochemical structure of pollution of urban areas and the state of public health, traceable at all stages - from the accumulation of pollutants and the occurrence of immunobiological changes in the body to an increase in morbidity. In kindergartens located in areas of pollution, the number of children with a high degree of microbial contamination reaches 32%, while in background areas - 8%. The incidence rates of children with bronchial asthma, bronchitis, otitis, conjunctivitis correlate with the mass of fallout. In the polluted areas of the city, the incidence rates are 40-60% higher than in the verstal areas.

4.1. Water.

One of the most acute problems of a large city is water. Historically, the development of mankind is associated with water supply - a person began to lead a sedentary lifestyle near the water. Recently, most large cities are experiencing ever-increasing difficulties with water supply. Although 5 liters of water is enough to satisfy a person’s vital needs, he needs much more: only for personal hygiene and domestic needs, at least 40-50 liters of water must be spent. Water consumption in the city averages from 150 to 200 liters, and in a number of industrial centers - up to 500 liters per capita per day. In small towns, water is used to a greater extent for domestic needs, while in large centers the ratio between the amount of water for industrial and domestic needs is exactly the opposite.

Although water consumption is steadily increases due to world population growth, threat is Not this, a progressive pollution of rivers, lakes and groundwater. At the end 19th century purity water was private problem healthcare. Typhoid, epidemic colitis and dysentery caused by waterborne bacteria, is that they have high biological activity and participate in many life processes: protein, fat, -carbohydrate, vitamin, mineral metabolism, gas and heat transfer, tissue permeability, cell division, bone formation, hematopoiesis, growth, reproduction, immunobiological reactions. The impact of microelements on metabolism is closely related to their influence on the activity of enzymes, some microelements are included in the structure of hormones and vitamins.

Water pollution has become the subject of intensive study, as How the number of people suffering from diseases transmitted through contaminated water. numbered in the millions.

4.2. Noise.

The environment is a complex system. This concept includes not only air, soil and water. Noise also plays a significant role in human life, especially in large cities. The negative impact of noise on the central nervous system, vegetative reactions, blood pressure, and the activity of internal organs has been proven. High level noise contributes to an increase in the number of hypertension and hypotension, gastritis, gastric ulcer, diseases of the endocrine glands and metabolism, psychoses, neuroses, diseases of the circulatory system. In persons living in noisy areas, cerebral atherosclerosis, increased blood cholesterol levels, and asthenic syndrome are more often detected. The proportion of underweight newborns increases with increasing noise levels.

Perhaps a violation of the functions of the nervous system when exposed to noise is associated with shifts in metabolism in the nervous tissue. The brain - an organ of high physiological activity - is very sensitive to oxygen starvation. When exposed to noise, brain hypoxia develops, since noise increases the tone of the brain vessels, reduces the blood supply to its tissues, which is a consequence of a change in the state of the vasomotor center in response to noise stimulation. Vegetative reactions, accompanied by a deterioration in the circulation of various organs, a violation of cardiac activity, a change in blood pressure, are especially pronounced with noise exposure of 65-95 dB.

Under the action of noise, the blood sugar content decreases to the lower normal level, which causes the activation of the adrenal glands and an increase in the concentration of adrenaline in the blood. Prolonged exposure to noise depresses the function of the adrenal glands, which leads to severe hypoglycemia. Noise of 60 dB, sometimes recorded on urban highways, reduces some indicators of immunity. The detection of remostable autoantibodies at low concentrations is regarded by experts as a compensatory response to the action of adverse environmental factors. Such autoantibodies belong to the category of autoaggressors, and a pronounced increase in their content under the action of noise can contribute to the formation of pathological processes. Thus, affecting the cerebral cortex and the centers of the autonomic nervous system, noise adversely affects various human organs and systems.

5. Conclusion.

Urbanization has an ambiguous effect on human society: on the one hand, the city provides a person with a number of socio-economic, social and cultural advantages, which positively affects his intellectual development, provides an opportunity for better realization of professional and creative abilities, on the other

A person moves away from nature and enters an environment with harmful influences - polluted air, noise and vibration, limited living space, a complicated supply system, dependence on transport, constant forced communication with many strangers - all this adversely affects his physical and mental health.

The situation is aggravated by the fact that giant cities developed spontaneously and, as a rule, without taking into account the biological needs and psychological characteristics of a person. The modern big city with its huge rectangular buildings of glass and concrete, crossed along and across by highways with an endless stream of cars spewing suffocating exhaust gases from their bowels, limited opportunities for pedestrian movement, continuous noise and endless hustle suppresses the biological nature of man, deprives him of the necessary physical load, depresses his psyche. A tired city dweller, with his inherent increased irritability, unmotivated concern, general lethargy, seeks release from this state in the bosom of nature, in the cinema, theaters or television screens, in reading literature or other similar activities, but this does not give the desired result. Fatigue accumulates and is realized in violation of certain body functions.

The problems associated with urbanization must be solved not by separate private events, looking for hasty and ineffective solutions, but by developing a set of interrelated social, environmental, technical and other measures. In all cases, man and the environment must be considered as a whole.

Literature:

1. General biology. Prof. . Under. Ed. .

2., Torshin of a person. M., 1994.

3. Reims. Theory, laws, rules, principles and hypotheses. M., 1994.

URBANIZATION (French Urbanisation, from Latin urbanus - urban) - the historical process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society, expressed in the predominant concentration of population, economy, culture, etc. in large cities, on the one hand, on the other, the spread of standards urban culture and general way of life to the countryside. The intensification of this process is closely related to industrialization. Urbanization had a huge impact on the population resettlement (a sharp reduction in the proportion of the rural population in favor of the urban population), its demographic and socio-professional structure, lifestyle and standard of living, etc. Historically, urbanization was due to the need and effectiveness of the concentration of various forms and types of activities (material and spiritual), communication, strengthening the relationship between various aspects of human life. It contributed to the overcoming of cultural and social backwardness in rural settlements, the formation of a modern economy, etc.

Urbanization has a number of negative consequences: the balance in the distribution of the population across the territory is disturbed; environmental violations, problems of unhealthy living environment of the population - noise, air pollution, infectious danger, ultrasonic radiation, problems of transport, building compaction, etc.; negative social consequences - the growth of crime, drug addiction, prostitution, etc.

Problems and consequences of urbanization in the modern world
Despite the differences in the structure and pace of development of the economies of different regions ( Western Europe- Eastern Europe - Near Abroad - Russian Federation) it is possible to identify common problems of large European agglomerations.

One of the most acute global problems of our time in the scientific literature is identified with the process of urbanization. There are good reasons for such an approach. Urbanization creates the most complex knot of contradictions, the totality of which just serves as a weighty argument for considering it from the point of view of globalistics. Urbanization, on the one hand, improves the living conditions of the population, on the other hand, it leads to the displacement of natural systems by artificial ones, environmental pollution, and an increase in chemical, physical and mental stress on living organisms.

58. Migration of the population: internal and external, their causes. Migration, that is, the movement of people from one place of residence to another, has a great impact on the location, size and composition of the population. The reasons for migration can be forced, economic, political, national, religious. The departure of people from their country for permanent residence is called emigration, and the entry into another country is called immigration.
External migrations of the population originated in ancient times and continued into the Middle Ages. The center of mass emigration was the Old World. Since the beginning of the XIX century. Before the Second World War, about 60 million people left Europe. due to rising unemployment. Most settled where the economy developed and there were free lands - in the USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, in the countries of South America and South Africa.
After the Second World War, Central Europe became a hotbed of immigration, a place of attraction for labor from the countries of Southern Europe, North Africa, Turkey, India, and Pakistan. Thus, labor migration became widespread. The oil-producing countries of the Middle East have also become the center of the influx of labor from Egypt, Yemen, Jordan, Syria, etc. The United States remains an important center of labor immigration, where labor comes from Latin America and Asia.
In the second half of the XX century. a new form of external migrations appeared, which was called the "brain drain". Its essence lies in poaching highly qualified foreign scientists and specialists. It began with an outflow from the countries of Western Europe to the United States, but then the developing countries became the main suppliers of such immigrants. In the late 80s - early 90s. in connection with the political economic crisis the “brain drain” from Russia and Ukraine intensified.
Internal migration refers to the movement of people from rural areas to cities, which in many countries is a source of rapid urban growth, especially in developing countries. For large states with large contrasts in population density, migration associated with the development of new territories is typical (USA, Canada, Australia, Russia, Brazil, China).
In recent years, migration flows of refugees have been increasing. They are typical for areas of interethnic conflicts, military operations.

59. Main types of modern internal migrations. Examples of internal migration can be the movement of residents from one city to another, from a village to a city (and vice versa), from one region (subject Russian Federation) to another. Internal seasonal migration, as a rule, intensifies during the period of intensification of agricultural work (spring, summer, autumn), when the demand for labor in rural areas increases, or during summer holidays. Regular, daily or weekly, movements of the population from the place of residence to the place of work or study (and vice versa) outside their own locality represent pendulum migration.

This type of migration plays at least a twofold role. On the one hand, commuting migrants both quantitatively and qualitatively affect labor resources and the labor potential of settlements - centers of attraction for migrants, where the number of jobs exceeds their own labor resources (demand for labor resources exceeds labor supply) or does not correspond to the professional and qualification structure of the population. On the other hand, pendulum migration contributes to meeting the labor needs of residents, as a rule, of small settlements, in which the choice of jobs is qualitatively, and often quantitatively, limited.

Pendulum migration is typical for many developed countries, where it affects a significant part of the urban and rural population.

60. Expand the features of external migrations. What is a "brain drain", give examples.

External migration- a type of population movement in which state borders are crossed. It distinguishes two streams: emigration and immigration. Population emigration- departure from the country, resettlement to another country for the purpose of permanent residence and temporary justification (usually for work). It can be permanent and temporary, even seasonal, the term of which is limited by the contract or other conditions of employment (for example, for harvesting). As a special case allocate re-emigration - return of emigrants to their homeland (for permanent residence).

Population immigration

Outward migration affects the population of a country, increasing it by the number of people who have moved to that country, and decreasing it by the number of people who have left the country.
There are two types of external migration:

Labor emigration, that is, the departure of the able-bodied population from the host country for long-term or permanent residence in another country;

Labor immigration, that is, the arrival of labor in this country from abroad.

In modern labor migration, the following forms are also distinguished:

1) in the directions:

Migration from developing and former socialist countries to industrial the developed countries;

Migration between industrialized countries; - migration between developing countries;

Migration of skilled labor from industrialized to developing countries;

Migration from developing countries to former socialist countries

2) by territorial coverage:

Intercontinental;

Inland, which in turn is divided:

a) migration between states;

b) migration between macroregions;

3) by time:

Irrevocable - associated with a change in permanent place of residence;

Temporary including:

a) short-term migration (the migrant is up to 1 year outside his usual permanent place of residence);

b) long-term (more than 1 year);

Seasonal;

4) according to the degree of legality:

Legal - stay in the country legally;

Illegal - illegal border crossing;

5) based on:

Voluntary - due to the voluntary adoption by an individual or a group of people of a decision to migrate;

Forced - caused by military, political events, ethnic and religious persecution, which force the population to change their place of residence;

Forced - forced resettlement of people organized by the state (deportation).

6) it is also necessary to single out such a type of migration as a “brain drain” - the international migration of highly qualified personnel (scientists, rare specialists, sometimes “stars” of art, sports).

61. Define the concept of "emigration", in which areas of the world

she prevails.

Population emigration- departure from the country, resettlement to another country for the purpose of permanent residence and temporary justification (usually for work). It can be permanent and temporary, even seasonal, the term of which is limited by the contract or other conditions of employment (for example, for harvesting).

Emigration, lat., eviction from one's native country forever, with the termination of all relations with it; caused by overpopulation of the country; sent to countries that open hopes for emigrants to improve their material well-being, now most of all to the United States North. America, Brazil, Argentina and other countries of America, Australia, South Africa. Modern states do not put up obstacles to emigration, but in the form of protecting emigrants from exploitation, they regulate the shipping companies involved in the transportation of emigrants. In terms of emigration, the first place now belongs to Italy, from where about 280 thousand people emigrate annually; the next place belongs to Great Britain (260 tons), Hungary (100 tons), Austria (120 tons), Germany (36 tons), Spain (50 tons), Portugal (24 tons), Sweden (40 tons). ), Norway (20 tons), France (10 tons). In Russia, emigration is replaced by resettlements (see) to Siberia, while Jews and Poles emigrate from the western outskirts (the growth of E. from Russia in 1900-90 thousand, in 1906-250 thousand); from Finland about 7.5 tons annually. The states in which immigration (settlement) takes place, until recently, treated emigrants very favorably, sometimes laws were issued to provide emigrants with various benefits for acquiring land, for freedom from taxes for several years in order to attract settlers to empty lands. But from the end of the 19th century The North American United States began to take measures to restrict the entry of poor Europeans and to prohibit the entry of Chinese and Japanese workers (coolies), who greatly reduced wages local workers.

62. Define the concept of "immigration", in which areas of the world it prevails.

Population immigration- entry into the country for permanent or temporary residence of citizens of another country. As well as emigration, the process of immigration of the population is determined by a number of reasons: socio-economic (search for a country with more favorable working conditions, higher living standards, etc.); political (flight from political, national persecution, religious and racial oppression, repatriation, etc.); military (deportation, evacuation, re-evacuation) and others, for example, natural-climatic, ethnic, demographic, etc.

population immigration,
entry into the country for permanent or temporary residence of citizens of other countries. Immigration of the population is determined by a number of reasons: economic (import of labor or entry into countries with more favorable working conditions or higher living standards, etc.), military (seizure of foreign lands and their military colonization) and political (flight from political, national , racial, religious and other persecution, the exchange of national minorities between states, etc.).
The immigration of the population played a crucial role in the settlement of some parts of the world and the formation of the population of many countries of the world. Population immigration has a significant impact on population dynamics; its demographic consequences are determined not only by the number of migrants, but also by the peculiarity of their gender and age structure: a noticeable predominance of young and middle-aged people, as well as men, among the migrants. The immigration of the population leads to a mixture of various ethnic groups of the population, as a result of which new nations and nationalities are formed.
Immigration of the population is characteristic of all historical eras. The migrations that took place over the past two thousand years, such as the Great Migration of Peoples in Europe (4th-7th centuries), migrations associated with the Arab conquests (7th-8th centuries), with the expansion of the Turkic peoples, had a huge impact on the formation of the population of Eurasia. -Mongols (11-17 centuries). The era of the Great Geographical Discoveries (mid-15th - mid-17th centuries) marked the beginning of a broad development of intercontinental migrations, mainly from Europe to other parts of the world, primarily to America and Australia. In the 20th century the pace of migration is unabated, although the migration itself takes on a different aspect in a number of cases: the huge population movements associated with the two world wars; the resettlement of more than 16 million people, caused by the division of British India into two independent states - India and Pakistan; migrations associated with the resettlement of Jews to Israel and the flight and expulsion of Arabs from there, etc. At the same time, there are still significant migrations for economic reasons. After World War II (1939–45), the immigration of labor force to the developed countries of Western Europe gained wide scope (the number of immigrants reaches 8 million people, including 3.4 million in France, 2 million in Germany, and 1 million in Switzerland). million, or 16% of the country's population, etc.). Countries that supply immigrants: Spain, Italy, Portugal, Greece, Turkey, North African countries (see Emigration of the population). S. I. Brook.

63. Expand the features of modern international economic

Russian integration and its types.

64. The most important regional integration associations.

65. The most important branch integration associations.

66. Expand the features of modern international transport

noah system.

67. Land types of international transport.

68. Water modes of international transport

69. Aviation international transport.