New phenomena in the economy of the countries of the 17th century. Russia XVII century
Lecture: New phenomena in the economy: the beginning of the formation of the all-Russian market, the formation of manufactories. Legal registration of serfdom
New trends in the economy
Most of the negative consequences that the Russian State faced after the Time of Troubles was overcome only by the middle of the 17th century. The basis for overcoming the crisis was the development of new lands, namely: Siberia, the Urals and the Wild Field. The borders expanded, the population increased to 10.5 million people.
A merchant's family in the 17th century, A.P. Ryabushkin, 1896
The tsarist government, trying to overcome the crisis, granted privileges to the merchants: low taxation, the introduction of duties for foreign merchants. Nobles, boyars and the church became more actively involved in market relations, developing a common market.
A new trend in the economy of that time was a smooth transition from handicrafts to small-scale production, focused on needs. Mining began to develop actively. Product-oriented centers appeared: metallurgy - the Tula-Serpukhov-Moscow and Ustyuzhno-Zheleznopolsky regions, woodworking - Moscow, Tver, Kaluga, jewelry production - Veliky Ustyug, Tikhvin, Nizhny Novgorod and Moscow.
The specialization of various territories in the production of a particular product has led to the activation of common market. Fairs appeared, where specialized goods from one area were supplied to another. Arkhangelsk and Astrakhan are also of particular importance as centers for conducting foreign economic relations. Although the agricultural segment remained the leading one in the Russian State, handicrafts are gradually turning into manufactories.
Manufactory- an enterprise using the manual labor of workers and the division of labor.
In the 17th century, there were about thirty different manufactories in Russia, and private manufactories appeared. The market is growing even faster.
In the years 1650-1660 held monetary reform. To increase national wealth, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich introduces "protectionism", the protection of domestic producers against foreign ones, with the application of duties for foreign merchants. Legislative support for domestic producers also begins - the New Trade Charter of 1667 (author A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin) is created, which increases the duty on foreign goods.
Legal registration of serfdom
In social terms, many changes also took place: the boyars lost their power and influence on the state, merchants came to the fore in terms of status among the urban population, the clergy did not change their positions and played a big role in the life of the state. Peasants were the largest group among the population.
Yuriev day. Painting by S. Ivanov
The policy of enslavement of the peasants continues actively. This process was lengthy. Let us recall how, after the ban on the transfer of peasants from one landowner to another on St. George's Day in 1581, scribe books are compiled to control the number of peasants in the land. A law is issued on the investigation and return of fugitive peasants - a decree on lesson years. In 1597, a law came into force that deprived the right to release bonded serfs, even after paying all debts. Also, free (voluntary) serfs who worked for more than six months with the owner also became complete serfs. They could get freedom only in the event of the death of the feudal lord. The boyar tsar V. Shuisky in 1607 established a search for fugitive peasants for a period of 15 years, it was also forbidden to prevent the capture or hide the fugitives.
And in 1649, the Cathedral Code was the last act of enslavement of the peasants. Peasants were forbidden for life to move from one owner to another. The terms of the investigation were canceled, that is, the investigation of fugitive peasants became indefinite. Chernososhnye (paying taxes to the state) and palace (working for the palace) peasants also no longer had the right to leave their communities. The Cathedral Code of 1649 became a legal document that legalized serfdom. In the future, this will lead to a series of uprisings due to the split of society.
Reasons for the final enslavement of the peasants:
- the transition of the peasants, which prevented the collection of taxes;
- the desire of the peasants to flee to the outskirts, while the state needed taxpayers;
- the need for free labor needed to restore the devastation of the Time of Troubles and economic development countries based on the activities of manufactories;
- strengthening the autocratic power of the monarch;
- the desire of the nobility for personal enrichment;
- preventing uprisings like Salt riot 1648 in Moscow.
4.2.1. New phenomena in the economy
The main feature of the economic development of Russia in the XVII century. - the beginning of the formation of prerequisites for the formation of capitalist relations, and they arose primarily in the field of crafts and trades, while feudal-serf relations continued to strengthen in the agricultural sector. First half of the 17th century passed under the sign of economic recovery after the Time of Troubles, in the second half new trends began to appear more and more clearly.
- New phenomena in the field of trade, crafts, crafts and industry:
Significant rise in domestic and foreign trade;
The beginning of the formation of a single economic space in Russia (an all-Russian market, a vivid manifestation of which was the emergence of fairs - Makarievskaya, Svenskaya, Irbitskaya, etc.) and the economic specialization of regions within the country;
The beginning of the protectionist policy of the state (to encourage domestic producers);
The emergence of manufactories 1 in the 17th century, which in Russia had a number of features:
They did not arise naturally, but were artificially created by the state for military needs (therefore, the first manufactories arose in metallurgy);
The role of foreign specialists was great in their creation;
They used mainly not hired, but serf labor;
In the 17th century handicrafts and crafts are transformed from production to order into production for the market, that is, into small-scale or commodity production (in domestic industry, which spread in the 17th century, small-scale production, and in handicrafts and manufactories, commodity production);
The growth of cities (not only fortresses, but also economic centers).
- The development of the agricultural sector of the economy was slower and was characterized by:
The settlement of the annexed territories (the Volga region, the Urals, Siberia, the Wild Field in the south) and the introduction of new lands into circulation (the beginning of the economic development of the southern and southeastern black earth regions was important, this became possible after the construction of the "notch line" in the south in the 16th-17th centuries .), which indicates the extensiveness of the development of agriculture;
- maintaining the predominance of subsistence farming;
- the growth of noble landownership due to grants, and in the 17th century. the rapprochement of the estate and the patrimony begins (they will finally merge into one form of land ownership under Peter I);
- a significant increase in feudal rent, which was carried by privately owned peasants in favor of their owners: corvée (the work of a peasant on the owner's field 2-5 days a week) and dues in kind and in cash. With the development of market relations, cash rent plays an increasingly important role.
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29. New phenomena in the socio-economic development of Russia in the XVII century.
Siberia was the most poorly populated and developed. Traditional forms of farming, a sharply continental climate, and low soil fertility in the Non-Chernozem region were preserved. Leading economic sector agricultural They sowed rye, wheat, oats, flax, and hemp. Growth of production volumes by attracting new lands. In the 17th century there was a further growth of the feudal land ownership. The new Romanov dynasty, strengthening its position, distributed land to the nobles. Nobles, boyars. monasteries were increasingly involved in trade operations and fishing activities. The development of handicraft into small-scale production was observed everywhere. By the end of the 17th century, there were about 300 large cities in Russia. The largest was Moscow (200 thousand people). The centers of metallurgy and metalworking, as well as the production of wood products, were further developed. the development of small-scale commodity production predetermined the emergence of manufactories. Because there were no free hands in the country. then the state attributed peasants to factories, and later allowed factories to buy peasants. Manufactories with the support of the state were called sessional. In the 17th century, the exchange of goods between the regions of the country, the merging of lands into a single economy, expanded significantly. system. Social social order. The upper class was the boyars. By the end of the century, it was getting closer and closer to the nobility and was losing its power. The nobles made up the top layer of the state. employees. Service people belonged to the lower stratum. The peasants were divided into two categories: privately owned and black-mowed. The first lived on the lands of estates and estates, carried duties in favor of the state and the feudal lord. The second lived on the outskirts of the country and united in communities. carried duties in favor of the state-va. The middle layer of the peasantry is the palace peasants. The top of the urban population were merchants. The bulk of the urban population were called townspeople, who united in a draft community. Urban artisans united in settlements or hundreds. Black settlements carried a duty in favor of the state, while whites did not. Until the time of Peter the Great, a significant number of slaves lived - serfs. A special class is the clergy. Bishops and monks are black, and priests are white clergy. There were also free people who did not fall into any layer; service people were recruited from them using the device.
30. Church schism in the 17th century. Its meaning.
The church played a prominent role in the events of the Time of Troubles. Its authority increased even more in the 20s of the 17th century, when Filaret, who returned from captivity, actually combined in his hands the prerogatives of secular and ecclesiastical power. Through his activities, he prepared the ground for, in fact, the transformation of Russia into a theocratic state. Despite the fact that the Council Code of 1649 limited the growth of church land ownership (which Ivan the Terrible failed to do) and curtailed the immunity rights of monasteries, the economic power of the church remained as before great. However, the church was not a single force. The origins of the differences in the church environment date back to the 40s of the 17th century, when a circle of zealots of ancient piety was formed in Moscow. It was headed by the tsar's confessor Stefan Vonifatiev, and included Nikon, Avvakum, and other secular and church figures. Their aspirations were reduced to the overdue "correction" of church services, raising the morality of confessors and counteracting the penetration of secular principles into the spiritual life of the population. The king also supported them. However, disagreement began when it came to the choice of samples for which corrections were to be made. Some believed that ancient Russian handwritten books (Abvakum) should be taken as the basis, others - Greek originals (Nikon). Despite their intransigence, the disputes at first did not go beyond the theological arguments of a narrow circle of people. This continued until Nikon became patriarch in 1652. He immediately began to carry out church reform. The most significant changes affected church ceremonies. Nikon replaced the custom of being baptized with two fingers with three fingers, words that were essentially equivalent, but different in form, were entered into liturgical books, and other rituals were also replaced. At the same time, Nikon, once a personal friend of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, appointed patriarch with his assistance, began to lay claim to state power. In fact, he becomes co-ruler of the tsar, and during the absence of Alexei Mikhailovich, he took his place. But Nikon overestimated his strength and capabilities: the priority of secular power was already decisive in the country's policy. Nevertheless, the struggle continued for eight years. And only the church council of 1666 passed a verdict on the deposition of Nikon and his exile as a simple monk to the northern Ferapontov Monastery. At the same time, the church council declared a curse on all opponents of the reform. After that, the split in Russia flared up with much greater force. A purely religious movement at first acquires a social coloring. However, the forces of the Reformed and Old Believers arguing among themselves were unequal: the church and the state were on the side of the former, the latter defended themselves only with words. The movement of the Old Believers was complex in terms of the composition of the participants. It included townspeople and peasants, archers, representatives of the black and white clergy, and finally the boyars. A tragic fate befell the Old Believers as early as the 17th century. The frantic Avvakum died an ascetic death: after many years of "sitting" in an earthen pit, he was burned in 1682. And the last quarter of this century was lit up by bonfires of mass "fires" (self-immolations). Persecution forced the Old Believers to go to remote places - to the north, to the Trans-Volga region, where they were not touched by civilization either in the 18th, or in the 19th, or even, sometimes in the 20th century. At the same time, the Old Believers, due to their remoteness, remained the keepers of many ancient manuscripts. History and historians are grateful to them. As for the official church, it compromised with the secular authorities. The Council of 1667 confirmed the independence of the spiritual authorities from the secular ones. By decision of the same council, the Monastic Order was abolished, and the practice of judging the clergy by a secular institution was also abolished.
About lecturer
Chernikova Tatyana Vasilievna — Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of World and National History of the Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO (U) of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia).
Lecture plan
1. Features of the development of Russia in the XVII century.
2. Old and new in the Russian economy.
3. The social structure of the Russian population.
4. Two stages in the development of Russian statehood in the 17th century. Zemstvo monarchy in the first half of the 17th century. The establishment of autocracy in the second half of the XVII century.
annotation
The lecture is devoted to an overview of the state and trends in the development of Russia in the 17th century, which turned out to be the last century of "Old Rus'" and at the same time the "age of Innovations". Russia was emerging from the Middle Ages and was on the threshold of the New Age. The transitional period gave rise to many contradictions and paradoxical phenomena in the economic, social, political, and cultural life of the country. Thus, the involvement of the landlord economy in commodity-money relations in Russia stimulated not the emancipation of the peasants, but the strengthening of enslavement tendencies. The Council Code of 1649 legalized serfdom in Russia.
Simultaneously socio-economic sphere developed new phenomena. Great success was made by trade, represented by fairs, constant shop trading and peddlers. In the field of industry, on the initiative of the state authorities and with the assistance of Western European merchants, the first manufactories appeared. The Tula ironworks of the Dutch merchant Andrey Vinnius and his comrades became the ancestor of a large-scale manufacturing industry. According to the form of ownership, they were a state concession.
In the 17th century there is a successful development of the expanses of Western and Eastern Siberia. Russia's borders go to the Pacific Ocean, and it becomes the largest country in the world in terms of area.
The lecture analyzes the features of the social system in Russia, its extreme fragmentation in comparison with Western European counterparts. Despite innovations in economic life and strong Western European influence, Russia still remains a traditional medieval country with a patrimonial state system, however, the formation of the foundations of an internal national market by the end of the 17th century allows Russia to finally turn into not only a single, but also a centralized state.
Questions on the topic of the lecture
1. What new and old moments distinguished the economic life of Russia in the 17th century?
2. What forms of trade developed in the 17th century?
3. What were the features of the Russian manufactory of the 17th century?
4. What were the reasons for the establishment of serfdom in Russia?
5. What classes were the service strata of the Russian population divided into?
6. What estates were represented by the taxed population?
7. What other layers were present in social system Russia?
8. What was the patrimonial way of life and the patrimonial state in Russia?
9. What stages of development did Russian statehood go through in the 17th century?
10. How did Western European influence affect Russia?
11. Do we have the right to call the 17th century the “age of innovation”?
Literature
Readers
1. Reader on the history of Russia. Tutorial/ Compiled by: Orlov A.S., Georgiev V.A., Georgieva N.G. etc. M.: Prospekt, 2012.
2. Reader on the history of Russia. In 4 volumes. Vol. 2: XVII - beginning of the XVIII century / comp. I.V. Babich, V.N. Zakharov, I.E. Ukolova. — M.: MIROS — International relationships, 1995.
Tutorials
1. History of Russia. Textbook in 3 volumes. M.: MGIMO, 2012: Chernikova T.V. Part 1: History of Russia from ancient times to the era of Catherine II.
2. Kirillov V.V. Russian history. Moscow: Yurayt, 2014.
3. Pavlenko N.I., Andreev I.L., Fedorov V.A. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. Textbook for high schools. Moscow: Yurayt, 2014.
Literature
1. Veluvenkamp J.V. Arkhangelsk. Dutch Entrepreneurs in Russia 1550-1785. M., 2006.
2. Demkin A.V. Western European merchants in Russia in the 17th century. Issue. 1-2. M., 1994.
3. Klyuchevsky V.O. Western influence. Lecture III. // Klyuchevsky V.O. Works in nine volumes. Russian history course. T.III. M., 1988.
4. The first Romanovs on the Russian throne / A.A. Preobrazhensky, L.E. Morozova, N.F. Demidov. M., 2008.
5. Sedov P.V. Sunset of the Moscow kingdom. Royal court of the end of the 17th century. SPb., 2006.
6. Fedoseev Yu.G. Romanovs. The First Century: A Brief Historical Narrative. M., 2008.
7. Do Shakov V.L. R Russia in the interpretation of a foreigner: the formation of ideas and stereotypes. Book two. Country, cities, people. St. Petersburg, 2011.
8. Chernikova T.V. Europeanization of Russia in the second half of the XV-XVII centuries. M., 2012.
Pearl Mosque in Agra. 1648 - 1655
The most characteristic phenomenon in the Indian economy of that time was some development public division labor.
It was expressed in strengthening the role of the city as a trade and craft center, in the emergence of new cities that had trade relations both within the country and with foreign countries.
Such, for example, is the history of the rise of the city of Masulipatam.
In the middle of the XVI century. it was a poor fishing village, and after 100 years it turned into a major seaport and an important center for the production of cotton fabrics.
The development of the city of Kolar was due to the diamond mines located near it. An English traveler noted: “This place is so infertile that before the discovery of the mines it was sparsely inhabited. Now 100,000 people live in the city. These are mine workers, merchants and all those who live near such a crowd of people.
Urban handicrafts continued to go mainly to meet the demand of the feudal elite and for export. But these products also began to find sales in the countryside.
In the more economically developed parts of India, such as Bengal, a significant part of the peasantry began to buy ready-made fabrics, and thus the artisan, previously working for a customer or for a narrow local market, gradually began to turn into a small commodity producer, selling his products to a wider and more distant market through a merchant or a buyer.
As a result, masses of artisans, primarily weavers, became dependent on merchants, who usually enslaved them with cash advances and paid artisans at prices significantly below market prices. This system, which actually cut off the artisan from the market, arose in India even before the penetration of Europeans, but was subsequently widely used by them.
In the period under review, simple and complex cooperation also began to spread in India. The division of labor becomes more complicated, especially in mining, sugar refining, shipbuilding, fabric dyeing, etc.
New phenomena in the economy of Indian society could not but be reflected in such an arch-conservative institution as caste.
The emergence of new professions, on the one hand, led to the emergence of new castes, but, on the other hand, and to a much greater extent, contributed to the fact that the caste began to lose its hereditary professional exclusivity.
There were frequent cases when members of one or another craft caste abandoned their traditional occupations and switched to new types of production activities. The development of trade led to the fact that a number of commercial and usurious castes (Marwari in Rajputana, Khatriyas in Punjab) increasingly spread their activities, gaining all-Indian significance.
So, the activity of the Marvari in the 17th century. covered, in addition to Raj-putana, also Gujarat and Maharashtra, also areas along the middle and lower reaches of the Ganges up to Bengal. As for the Khatriyas, their operations extended throughout Northwest India and even beyond.
Height productive forces led to the development of commodity production. The process of formation of regional markets intensified in the country, both on the basis of the growing separation of handicrafts from agriculture, and as a result of the specialization of agriculture itself.
In the 17th century transportation of some bulky goods (salt, grain, cotton) was carried out by special castes. Their huge convoys, often numbering 15-20 thousand laden wagons harnessed by oxen, slowly crossed the country from end to end. But the main arteries of internal trade were the largest navigable rivers - the Ganges to the Indus.
Many areas in the XVII century. could no longer fully provide themselves with local food and were forced to partially bring it from other provinces.
Bengal exported its rice and cane sugar up the Ganges to Hindustan and south by sea to the Coromandel coast.
Gujarat and Agra produced indigo. Bihar wheat was supplied along the Ganges to the metropolitan area of Agra-Delhi and Bengal; grain entered the markets of Gujarat from the Deccan and Malwa; Peshawar rice was sold in the markets of Delhi and Agra. It is also known that Orissa rice was transported by sea to Madras.
The development of commodity production in Indian agriculture was reflected in the translation from the end of the 16th century. food rent-tax in cash, while the rate of tax on industrial crops was one and a half to two times higher than on grain. So, if we take the taxation of wheat as 100, then they took 150 from cotton, and 254 from indigo.
There was no common market in India yet. Some coastal areas were more connected with the external market than with the interior.