As a result of the implementation of the NEP, the country successfully solved the tasks of restoring National economy. By the beginning of 1926, industry faced a much more difficult task than during the recovery period. It was necessary to radically update industrial equipment, increase the marketability of peasant farms. The scale of the tasks facing the country increased. The market foundations of the economy, the strengthening of the spontaneous factor, the activation of private capital required more flexible methods government controlled. In the mid-1920s, a series of economic crises took place in the country (1923-1924 - "sales crisis", 1927-1928 - "grain procurement crisis"). The revival of the command-administrative methods of management led to the liquidation of the NEP. The rejection of the NEP, the change in the development strategy practically meant a return to a model characterized by a sharp increase in state intervention in the life of society, the use of administrative-command control levers. The accelerated modernization option was based on the choice of one priority direction in the development of the economy (heavy industry) and the concentration of all the country's resources on this main direction by maximizing the tension of the entire economic system. According to the modernization plan, it was supposed to create a higher type of social organization compared to Western countries, based on industrial collectivism and the communist idea. The main means for the implementation of this plan were: total nationalization, restriction of consumption of the population, pumping out funds from the countryside, development of raw materials exports, high growth rates industrial products. Due to this, the Soviet Union by the end of the 30s became one of the leading industrial powers of the world.

Forced industrialization was accompanied by an increase in the pace of collectivization. By the spring of 1930, almost 60% of the peasants joined the collective farms. To create them, local authorities used measures of economic and political coercion. Individual kulaks were deprived of voting rights, evicted, and in case of resistance, arrested. Excessive seizure of grain from the collective farms of grain regions in order to implement an industrial breakthrough gave rise to the famine of 1932-1933, which engulfed the North Caucasus, the Volga region, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan. In general, complete collectivization made it possible to create a system in which financial, material, labor resources pumped from the agricultural sector to the industrial sector. Simultaneously with industrialization and collectivization, cultural revolution. In 1930, universal primary education was introduced, by the end of the 1930s. completed the transition to compulsory seven-year education. By 1940, the Soviet system of public education was formed. This process was accompanied by the breaking of many cultural traditions (the oppression of the church and the inculcation of atheism, distrust of the old Russian intelligentsia, the ideologization of the entire cultural and public life countries.) The political leadership, having established a monopoly on ideology, extended control not only to the political and economic, but also to the spiritual life of society. The transition to the accelerated version of development increased the need for the use of administrative-command forms of the political organization of society. The monopoly of the CPSU (b) led to the merging of the party and the state. Gradually, the regime of Stalin's unlimited personal dictatorship took shape, the role of state security agencies - the OGPU-NKVD, which included labor camps and labor colonies, united by the GULAG system (the main department of camps of the NKVD) - increased in management. In the 1930s, mass repressions fell upon the country, during which real and even potential opponents of the regime were isolated and destroyed. The loudest manifestations of the wave of terror were the political trials of prominent political and military figures.

6.3. Stalinist modernization of the country. 1929–1939

So far, the biggest problems of the 1930s – the political system of that time, economic development and its evaluation, social outcomes are the subject of heated debate. Some authors still defend the point of view that this period is the time of the successful activity of the Communist Party, the struggle against the "enemies of socialism" and "saboteurs" with some alleged "mistakes". Opposite positions are those who consider the 1930s. a time of unheard-of crimes, in which there is nothing bright. This concept in some cases is also associated with the search for "enemies". In particular, a number of authors repeat the conjectures of the Black Hundreds and fascists about the “Bolshevik-Jewish conspiracy”, about the Zionists’ desire to establish “world domination”, “destroy Russia”, etc. The third approach is the desire to study the historical process of the 1930s. as a result of the interaction of various factors, in which enthusiasm and violence, heroism and meanness, joy and tragedy were intertwined.

Choice of socio-economic strategy. In the late 1920s two main strategies for the country's economic development emerged. The first one was associated with the names of members of the Politburo of the Central Committee N.I. Bukharin (editor-in-chief of the Pravda newspaper and head of the executive committee of the Comintern), A.I. Rykov (Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR since 1924) and M.P. Tomsky (leader of the Soviet trade unions). They advocated the all-round development of cooperation, rejected the path of raising industrial or sharply reducing agricultural prices, increasing taxes on the peasantry, understood five year plan as a forecast of the main trends in the development of the economy. It was the development strategy of the NEP - the strategy of a regulated market with the obligatory use of commodity-money relations and overcoming imbalances by economic methods. At the same time, the largest economists of that time N.D. Kondratiev, A.V. Chayanov, L.N. Yurovsky pointed out that planning against the market would lead to the replacement of trading for money by distribution by cards.

Stalin's group defended another path. It included members of the Politburo of the Central Committee K.E. Voroshilov, L.M. Kaganovich, V.V. Kuibyshev, V.M. Molotov, G.K. Ordzhonikidze and others. They considered it necessary to accelerate the development of heavy industry, the collectivization of the countryside, they considered the plans as directives that must be carried out; proved the inevitability of the aggravation of the class struggle. This meant a course towards strengthening the party-state system willingness to make significant sacrifices for the sake of achieving a “bright future”.

Each group had its own social and political base. Bukharin's group was supported by part of the party intelligentsia, business executives, skilled communist workers and peasants. They were looking for ways to turn the industrial worker into a real owner of the enterprise, opposed violence against the peasantry. Their thoughts were reflected in letters to the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks: “instead of a monthly salary, business executives should be given a percentage of the enterprise’s income,” follow the path of gradually softening the forms of the dictatorship of the proletariat, and “in the near future, abolish the party monopoly.” But most of the party members sided with Stalin. The party and state bureaucracy did not want to part with the levers of power. The peasant poor and part of the workers demanded decisive measures to redistribute wealth, considering themselves deceived by the revolution. “We want to work and be fed,” one of the workers wrote to Molotov. The leadership of the country experienced powerful pressure from the lower classes, who were accustomed to a certain extent to social dependency and demanded the speedy implementation of socialist ideals. An additional stimulus was confidence in a new tide of "revolutionary war" in the capitalist world, in the approaching phase of "big imperialist wars".

For a certain time, the positions of Bukharin and Stalin coexisted side by side. Their open collision took place in 1928–1929. It began with the “grain crisis” at the turn of 1927–1928. The reduction in grain procurements was caused by the absence of industrial goods on the market, a decrease in purchase prices, and the possibility of paying a monetary tax at the expense of other sources of income. In this difficult situation, the leadership of the party embarked on the path of "emergency measures": searches, a ban on market trade, criminal prosecution of wealthy peasants. This meant a turn to the norms of the command-administrative system, the rejection of the principles of the New Economic Policy. In May 1929, the Fifth Congress of Soviets of the USSR adopted the first five-year plan for 1928-1933. The main goal was to double industrial production. Initially, the plan was built on the principles of the New Economic Policy, providing for the further deepening of cost accounting and its introduction at enterprises. The calculation was to carry out major social transformations without any major upheavals in the public life of the country; in fact, this was the last compromise between the Stalin group and the Bukharin group. The plan was an attempt to provide in a single complex the solution of issues of industrial development, Agriculture, the growth of the well-being of the people and cultural and technical development. But this plan was not destined to materialize. From the end of 1928, economic difficulties increased. The peasantry responded to forceful methods by reducing the area under crops and self-liquidating high-commodity farms. Cards for food products were introduced in cities. The export of bread has sharply decreased.

The politics of the Great Leap Forward. Stalin's group concluded that it was necessary to sharply accelerate the pace of industrialization and collectivization.

She considered the countryside as a source of labor for industry, a supplier of technical raw materials and a minimum of food to supply cities and the army. Bread was one of the most important sources of currency for the purchase of industrial equipment. It was now planned to achieve a sharp increase in the marketability of agriculture through accelerated collectivization. In November 1929 these decisions were taken at the plenum of the Central Committee. Here finally condemned as "Right opportunists" Bukharin's group. In the article “The Year of the Great Turn,” Stalin promised that “if the development of collective farms and state farms goes at an accelerated pace, then ... our country in ... three years will become one of the most bread-producing countries, if not the most bread-producing country in the world.” To justify this policy, the thesis was put forward about the inevitable intensification of the class struggle in the country and, consequently, the need to eliminate the kulaks as an antagonistic class.

In January 1930, the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks adopted a resolution "On the rate of collectivization and measures of state assistance to collective farm construction."

In accordance with it, strict deadlines were set for the implementation of this idea.

It was assumed that in the Volga region and the North Caucasus it would be completed by the spring of 1931. In the black earth regions of Russia, in Siberia, the Ukraine and the Urals, collectivization was planned to be completed a year later, and in the Transcaucasus and Central Asia - before the spring of 1933. It was accepted a special decision of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, which established the procedure for the dispossession of peasants with confiscation and the eviction of kulaks outside the region in which they lived. The property of the kulaks was transferred to the ownership of the collective farms. On the ground, the organizers of the collective farms, as a rule, did not have a clear idea of ​​who the kulaks were. All prosperous peasants, most of whom were middle peasants, were usually taken for kulaks. As a result, many hundreds of thousands of families who had nothing to do with the rural bourgeoisie fell under dispossession. To carry out collectivization and strengthen the leadership of the collective farms that were being created, 50,000 factory workers were sent to the countryside.

The forcible organization of collective farms inflicted irreparable damage on agriculture. When joining the collective farms, many peasants slaughtered their livestock. As a result, the number of cows decreased by 35%, pigs - by 50%, and goats and sheep - by more than 30%. The resistance of the peasantry during the organization of collective farms, during the dispossession of the middle peasants forced the Central Committee of the Party to adopt in March 1930 a resolution "On combating the distortion of the party line in the collective farm movement." All the blame for the so-called "excesses" was placed on local leaders. The heads of districts and regions disbanded part of the artificially created collective farms. But by the autumn of that year, the campaign to create collective farms unfolded with renewed vigor. In June 1931, the plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks recommended that collective farmers introduce an assessment of labor in workdays and distribute income in accordance with them. Such piece work was not connected with the final results of labor, did not contribute to improving the quality of work. This approach has become one of the main reasons for the long-term crisis of agricultural production in our country.

Collectivization meant a transition to strict state control over agricultural production. At the end of 1928, machine and tractor stations (MTS) appeared in the village. They had machinery (tractors, combine harvesters) and cultivated the land of collective farms for a certain fee. State agricultural enterprises - state farms - were also created. Although collective farms formally remained voluntary cooperative associations, but, like state farms, they were obliged to fulfill the plans for the supply of products established by the state at state prices.

The hasty implementation of "complete collectivization" and the violations of the law that accompanied it led to huge moral and material losses. In the course of dispossession, 2 million so-called "kulaks" were evicted to the northern regions. Food cards were introduced in the USSR, which were valid until 1935. In January 1933, the country's leadership obliged the collective farms to supply agricultural products to the state at prices 10–12 times lower than market prices.

Thus, at the turn of the 1920-1930s. NEP was finally abolished. In the economy, commodity-money, market regulators under state control have been replaced by a system of comprehensive state planning. The Gosplan (State Planning Committee) of the USSR became the heart of this system. Based on the decisions of the Politburo of the Central Committee, Gosplan developed five-year and annual plans for the production of all types of products. In 1932, the Supreme Economic Council was liquidated. On its basis, various people's commissariats appeared for the daily management of industry and agriculture (heavy, timber, coal, textile industries, etc.). The passport system was introduced in 1932 to control the movement of labor. The villagers did not have passports until the mid-1970s. This allowed the state, through the so-called "limit" system, to recruit labor from the villages to the necessary branches of production. An administrative-command system of economic management appeared.

In industry, a revision of planned targets has begun in the direction of their sharp increase. The 16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks in the summer of 1930 decided to direct the main efforts towards a sharp rise in heavy industry, the reconstruction of transport and the creation of a new coal and metallurgical base in the east of the country. To solve this problem, it was necessary to attract to large-scale industry additional funds. The so-called "surplus tax" was established for the villagers. It was withdrawn by artificially lowering state prices for supplied agricultural products, as well as due to a sharp increase in prices for industrial goods for agriculture. Through the policy of prices increased sharply indirect taxes. For 13 years (from 1928 to 1941) state retail prices for bread increased 11 times, for butter - 7 times, for sugar - 6 times, for soap - 5 times. By the end of the first five-year period, real wages fell by 20% or more. The well-being of workers was also negatively affected by the constant forced distribution by the state of internal loan bonds. The famine of 1933 became a national disaster. In Ukraine, in the Volga region, Kazakhstan, Southern Urals and the North Caucasus killed several million people. The reason was the withdrawal of grain and livestock for export in the second half of 1932.

But even this did not make it possible to carry out the assignments of the five-year plan. By the end of the five-year plan, industrial growth rates had fallen sharply. The tasks for the production of most types of products were not fulfilled. It was not possible to fulfill the planned plans in the field of agriculture. In this situation, I.V. Stalin and his associates falsified the results of the first five-year plan. At a meeting of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks at the end of 1932, it was decided to classify all statistical data related to the assessment of the course of the five-year plan and its results, I.V. Stalin at the beginning of 1933 declared that the five-year plan for the production of gross industrial output was completed ahead of schedule - in four years and three months, which was an absolute lie. A similar "stretch" was his assertion that by the end of the first five-year plan, the Soviet Union had turned from an agrarian country into an industrial state. In fact, the share of industry in the national income of the USSR exceeded the share of agricultural production only in the 1960s. Such manipulation of public opinion could take place only if publicity was not allowed and under the conditions of the ever-increasing personal dictatorship of I.V. Stalin. Only those who were at the very top of the pyramid of power knew the real state of affairs in the country's economy. For the majority of Soviet citizens, the first five-year plan was associated with the transformation of the country into a gigantic all-Union construction project, with the unprecedented labor enthusiasm of millions of Soviet people.

The feat of the working people was truly enormous. One and a half thousand large plants, factories, mines were built in the country. Such giant factories were launched as automobile enterprises in Moscow, Gorky, Yaroslavl; tractor factories in Kharkov and Stalingrad; chemical plants in the Moscow region, Solikamsk, Khibiny and Bereznyaki; giant metallurgical plants were built in the Urals and Siberia. Thanks to the selfless labor of the Soviet people, the Dneproges was put into operation in the first five-year plan, mines began to operate in Kazakhstan. The country's industrial potential doubled during the years of the first five-year plan. In the union republics, industry grew even faster than in Russia. Dozens of new cities and large workers' settlements appeared. In the middle of the five-year plan, unemployment was ended in the USSR. During the period of industrialization, mass social movements appeared, among them shock work. The first shock brigades arose in Moscow, Donbass, and the Urals. At the Leningrad plant "Red Vyborzhets" one of the first agreements on the organization of socialist competition was signed. However, the encouragement of the storm movement, the substitution of high-sounding phrases for real programs for the accelerated development of industry, delayed the transformation of the country into a real industrial power.

Industrialization, the development of new areas required a huge amount of cheap labor. Therefore, along with the exploitation of enthusiasm, the number of prisoners and special settlers is growing rapidly. In 1930, the Gulag was created (Main Directorate of Camps), which played an increasing role in the country's economy. At the turn of the 1930s. the first mass Stalinist repressions began. In 1928, the "Shakhty case" was fabricated. After him, a campaign of persecution was launched against the "bourgeois specialists". Tens of thousands of intellectuals became its victims.

In 1930–1931 thousands of former tsarist officers - commanders of the Red Army became victims of repression. Then came the turn of the former oppositionists, the so-called "Trotskyites and Zinovievists."

At the beginning of 1934, the XVII Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks took place, officially called the “Congress of the Victors”. The congress adopted a resolution on the second five-year plan for 1933–1937. In the course of its implementation, a special place was given to the modernization of industry. Another 4.5 thousand entered service large enterprises, including the Novolipetsk Metallurgical Plant, the Ural Carriage Works, the Tashkent and Barnaul Textile Plants; Svirskaya, Sredneuralskaya HPP. In 1935, the first metro line opened in Moscow. In Ukraine - in Zaporozhye, Krivoy Rog - metallurgical plants were built. Large enterprises were created in the republics. A certain role in the normalization of the situation in the national economy was played by Stakhanovite movement. In August 1935, the Donetsk miner Stakhanov exceeded the coal production rate by 14 times. This initiative was extended to all spheres of the national economy. Surnames of the blacksmith Busygin, machinist

Krivonos, tractor driver Angelina, weavers Vinogradovs became widely known. The strength of the movement was based on a combination of new labor technology, mastery of new technology and "unlimited piecework", This stimulated labor productivity in a particular workplace. But the Stakhanovite movement also had its shadow sides. The pursuit of records often led to accidents. The high productivity of an individual worker was often not needed by the economy as a whole and even by a given enterprise. The real strength of the movement was weakened by the revision of norms and rates. The system itself gave rise to bureaucratic perversions: artificial records, the creation of special conditions for individual leaders, etc.

Results of the Great Leap Forward. The party elite again deceived the people, declaring the implementation of the second five-year plan in 4 years and 3 months. In 1936, the building of a basically socialist society was announced. Indeed, as a result of two five-year plans, the technical backwardness of the country was overcome. The USSR overtook England, Germany and France in terms of gross output. Mechanical engineering became the main branch of industry. But, in fact, industrialization in the USSR resulted only in the development of heavy industry, especially the military-industrial complex. The production of the most important types of industrial products of that time (steel, oil, cast iron) per capita was from 1/4 to 2/3 of the level of advanced countries. In agriculture, the average grain yield in 1933-1937. was less than in 1922–1928. The number of management personnel has increased sharply. Even the early industrial stage of development was not completed. Most of the population still lived in rural areas.

The social composition of the population has changed. The number of workers increased by 2.5 times. The share of people employed in agriculture has decreased. Knowledge workers (intelligentsia) became a significant social group. The number of engineers has grown more than six times. But the quality of training has declined. In the late 1920s - early 1930s. they tried to cancel graduation projects and papers, shorten the period of study, and focus on correspondence and evening education. A few years later, this had to be abandoned. About a quarter of the population remained illiterate. With an extremely cruel and cynical attitude towards their people, the leadership of the Soviet state understood that without a breakthrough in the cultural sphere, it would be impossible to fulfill the tasks set. New ideas of social and technical transformations could only be carried out by people trained and educated on the new ideology. In the 1930s, the tasks of vocational training for the general population and their education on the ideas of Stalinism merged together.

Social policy of the 1930s should take into account the real interests of the working people, especially the working class. This was also required by the ideals of the revolution, loyalty to which was proclaimed. But in many respects this was done at the expense of the village. Workers and employees received the right to paid holidays, a seven-hour working day with the so-called "continuity" that existed in the 1930s. (five working days, the sixth day off), payment sick leave, paid maternity leave, retirement pensions in some industries. In the mass consciousness, these changes were perceived as the result of industrialization.

But the majority of the population, primarily in the countryside, did not have these benefits (vacation, sick pay). The quality of social benefits remained low. By 1941, 4 million people received pensions, including 200 thousand by age. Only in 1935 did the gradual abolition of cards for food and manufactured goods begin. In 1937, in letters to Stalin and Kalinin, complaints were heard: “in the collective farms ... everything is a sad picture,” “we have absolutely no bread,” etc. By 1940, the standard of living had returned to its original 1928 level.

The USSR as a whole remained an industrial-agrarian country. Human interests were subordinated to the tasks of increasing the power of the state. The "depeasantization" of the village took place by merciless, rude methods. Natural in themselves, these processes turned out to be sharply compressed in time and were carried out without the necessary concern for the preservation of folk customs, the combination of the best features of industrial civilization with the traditional culture of peoples. The emerging system had no internal incentives for self-development and represented a dead-end path of development, although it gave a short-term gain in certain industries. Some historians characterize it as "state socialism" burdened with a policy of mass repression.

The political system of Stalinism. Historians and philosophers argue about character political system 30s Most call her command-administrative system, use the term "totalitarianism" when characterizing the system as a whole. Totalitarianism is understood as the desire of the state to control all spheres of society. The ideology of the Soviet totalitarian system was Stalinism, characterized by extreme dogmatism and absolute intransigence towards dissent.

The most important prerequisite for the emergence of this system was the monopoly power of the Communist Party, which took shape after the summer of 1918. A new factor was the decision of the 10th Congress of the RCP (b) in 1921 to ban factions and groups. The result was the impossibility for the minority to defend their views. Ultimately, the party turned into a silent and obedient appendage of the party apparatus. The dictatorship of the proletariat turned into the dictatorship of the party, which, in turn, already in the 1920s. became the dictatorship of the Central Committee, and then the dictatorship of the Politburo of the Central Committee. By the beginning of the 1930s. there was already a personal dictatorship of Stalin. A system was formed that controlled the political moods of citizens and shaped them in the direction desired by the authorities. For this, the organs of the OGPU-NKVD (since 1934 - the People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs) were widely used. All works of print and art were subjected to censorship.

The elimination of the NEP provided opportunities for the penetration of the bureaucratic system into all structures of society and the establishment of the dictatorship of the leader.

The cult of personality became its ideological expression. Stalin's 50th birthday in December 1929 was celebrated as a "nationwide celebration." The most important element of this system was the party-state, which turned the party and state apparatus into the dominant force in society. It relied on the state centralized system of planned economy. Party bodies were responsible for the results of the activities of all state structures on their territory and were obliged to control their work. While giving directives to state bodies, the party as a whole did not bear direct responsibility for them. In case of erroneous decisions, all responsibility fell on the performers. The right to make decisions belonged to the "first persons": directors of large enterprises, people's commissars, secretaries of district committees, regional committees and the Central Committee of the republics within their powers. On a national scale, only Stalin possessed it. Gradually, even the formal semblance of collective leadership disappeared. From 1928 to 1941 Three party congresses and three party conferences took place. Plenums of the Central Committee and even meetings of the Politburo of the Central Committee became irregular.

Democratic bodies provided for by the Constitutions of the USSR of 1924 and 1936. (local Soviets, congresses of Soviets and the Central Executive Committee of the USSR according to the Constitution of 1924, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR according to the Constitution of 1936) played the role of a “democratic screen”, approving the decisions of party bodies worked out in advance. Before 1937 elections were not universal, equal, secret and direct. Attempts in accordance with the new Constitution of 1936 to nominate alternative candidates were suppressed by the NKVD. All this contradicted the ideas of democracy proclaimed during the creation of the Soviet state. The economic basis of the totalitarian system was the monopoly state-bureaucratic property. Stalinism strove to act under the brand name of Marxism, from which it drew individual elements.

At the same time, Stalinism was alien to the humanistic ideals of Marxism. The latter, like any ideology, was historically limited, but played an important role in the development of scientific thought and ideas about social justice. Stalinism combined the strictest censorship with primitive formulas that were easily perceived by the mass consciousness. An attempt was made to turn the so-called "Marxism-Leninism" from an object of critical reflection into a new religion. Related to this was the fierce struggle against Orthodoxy and other confessions (Muslims, Judaism, Buddhism, etc.), which unfolded especially widely from the end of the 1920s.

One of the most important ideas of Stalinism was the statement about the continuous intensification of the class struggle both within the country and in international relations. It served as the basis for the formation of the "image of the enemy", internal and external, as well as for mass repressions. As a rule, mass repressions were preceded and accompanied by ideological campaigns. They were called upon to explain and justify arrests and executions in the eyes of the broad masses. Stalin's statements were declared to be the highest truth. Campaigns of mass repression 1928–1941 have their own internal logic. Late 1920s - early 1930s - repressions against the old intelligentsia (economic, scientific, military). Particularly well-known are the "Shakhty case", the "academic case", the trials of the "Industrial Party" and the "Union Bureau of the Mensheviks". Early 1930s - the so-called "dispossession". First half of the 1930s - persecution of former oppositionists.

December 1, 1934 in Leningrad in Smolny was killed member of the Politburo of the Central Committee, first secretary of the Leningrad city committee and the regional committee of the CPSU (b) CM. Kirov. Historians argue about the involvement of I.V. Stalin. In any case, this terrorist act by I.V. Stalin used to unleash mass terror. As early as December 1, 1934, the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR adopted a resolution on the procedure for considering charges of preparing and committing terrorist acts. Ten days were allotted for conducting investigations in such cases. The cases were considered without a prosecutor and a defense counsel. Appeals and pardons were not allowed. The sentence to capital punishment - execution - was carried out immediately. This lynching in 1937 was also extended to cases of sabotage and sabotage. Cases on political charges began to be considered out of court by the so-called "troikas", which included party leaders of regions and republics, prosecutors and heads of NKVD departments. Soon, in political cases, sentences began to be handed down by lists consisting of dozens, and sometimes hundreds of names.

In August 1936, when a nationwide discussion of the draft of the new Constitution was taking place, a trial was fabricated in Moscow in the case of the so-called "Anti-Soviet United Trotskyist-Zinoviev Center." G.E. Zinoviev, L.B. Kamenev and a number of other former party leaders were charged with espionage, sabotage, and terrorism. All the accused were sentenced to capital punishment. In the autumn of 1936 G.G. Yagoda as head of the NKVD was replaced by N.I. Yezhov, who was at the same time secretary of the Central Committee. Under Yezhov, repression reached its climax. Subsequently, G.G. Yagoda (in 1938) and N.I. Yezhov (in 1940) were also shot. Ezhov was blamed for the so-called "excesses".

1937-1938 became the peak of mass repressions. Its beginning was the February-March Plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks (1937). Bodies of the NKVD received a secret instruction on the use of physical torture. According to official data, about 700 thousand people were shot in two years, of which about 60% were peasants. More than 70% of the delegates to the 17th Party Congress (1934), called the "Congress of Victors", were repressed. In June 1937, the largest military leaders were tried: Kork, Primakov, Putna, Tukhachevsky, Uborevich, Feldman, Eideman and Yakir. They were accused of treason and spying for intelligence different countries. Immediately after the trial, they were shot. In total, out of 40 top military leaders at the end of 1935, 36 people were destroyed. In March 1938, representatives of the so-called "anti-Soviet Right-Trotsky bloc" were tried. Bukharin, Rykov, Krestinsky, Rakovsky and many other prominent Soviet and party workers were shot. But the vast majority of the repressed and destroyed were ordinary Soviet citizens: collective farmers, workers, employees, ministers of confessions. Stalinist repressions had several goals: they destroyed possible opposition, in case of war they created an atmosphere of fear and unquestioning obedience to the will of the leader, ensured the rotation (change) of personnel through the promotion of young people, weakened social tensions, blaming "enemies of the people" for the difficulties of life; provided labor for the Gulag.

Stalin's policy of modernizing Soviet society was resisted at various times and in various forms. For example, in the first three months of 1930 alone there were more than 2,000 armed uprisings by peasants. Since 1912, a Bolshevik, a prominent writer and diplomat, F. Raskolnikov, published an open letter in the foreign press, in which he subjected Stalin's personality and deeds to devastating criticism. In the early 1930s there were political protests against I.V. Stalin and Stalinism within the CPSU(b). The first - in 1930 - was headed by a candidate member of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR Syrtsov and secretary of the Transcaucasian regional committee of the party Lominadze. In 1932, a group of Moscow party and Soviet workers, including Ryutin, Galkin, Ivanov, Kayurov, created the Union of Marxist-Leninists, calling for a fight against Stalin. The same questions were discussed in 1933 by the old Bolsheviks Smirnov, Tolmachev, and Eismont. All these speeches were associated with criticism economic policy authorities, the personal dictatorship of the leader. Stalin's opponents demanded the free exit of peasants from the collective farms, the subordination of the OGPU to strict party control, the independence of trade unions, the revision of industrial programs, and the removal of I.V. Stalin from the leadership of the country. All oppositionists were excommunicated from power and soon shot. The method of expressing mass discontent was the numerous flow of letters to the leaders of the country describing the real state of affairs on the ground. Illegal, most often youth, organizations opposed the policy of repression.

This resistance, despite the failure, was of great moral significance, preparing the subsequent denial of this system, forcing the authorities to make some concessions and camouflage steps. In particular, at the end of 1938, all the blame for unjustified repressions was laid on N.I. Yezhov and his entourage. The NKVD was headed by L.P. Beria. A small number of prisoners were released (poetess O. Bergholz, future marshal K.K. Rokossovsky, etc.). But the essence of the system has not changed.

Foreign policy. In 1929–1933 world economic crisis. In the capitalist countries there was a search for new ways of development. In the early 1920s, a fascist party led by Mussolini seized power in Italy, combining ideas of extreme nationalism and racial superiority with social demagogy and elements of socialism. In January 1933, the National Socialist (fascist) party headed by A. Hitler came to power in Germany. This was facilitated by the policy of the Comintern. In 1928, the 6th Congress of the Comintern, on Stalin's initiative, recognized the Social Democracy as "the most dangerous enemy of the working-class movement" and demanded that the Communist Parties refuse all cooperation with it. Other capitalist countries emerged from the crisis with the help of reforms and expansion of measures to social protection working strata ("New Deal" by F. Roosevelt in the USA; expansion of the rights of workers in England, France and other countries).

At the same time, the geopolitical position of the USSR changed. In the 1920s the Soviet leadership saw the main threat in England, France, strengthening military-political relations with Germany. Now the main threat in Europe came from Germany, which made no secret of its predatory aspirations. In 1933 Germany withdrew from the League of Nations. In March 1935 in Germany, in violation of the Treaty of Versailles, universal conscription was introduced, and the open creation of military aviation began. In 1935, Hitler sent troops into the Rhineland. Germany's most important partners were Japan and Italy. In 1931, Japan seized Northeast China, creating the puppet state of Manchukuo there. In 1937, Japan began the conquest of Central China. Italy in 1935–1936 captured Ethiopia. Germany and Japan in November 1936 signed the so-called Anti-Comintern Pact directed against the USSR. Later, Italy and Hungary joined this pact. July 1936 - March 1939 there was a civil war in Spain. The Falangists, led by General Franco, opposed the republican government, which won the elections. His rebellion was supported by Italy and Germany. Assistance to the Spanish Republic was provided by anti-fascist forces. From the envoys of many countries, international brigades were created. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria.

Under these conditions, the leadership of the USSR pursued a dual policy. On the one hand, it advocated limiting the growth of armaments, sought to stop the expansion of German fascism, and provided assistance to the victims of aggression (China, Ethiopia, Spain). In 1934 the USSR joined the League of Nations, and in 1935 signed agreements on mutual assistance with France and Czechoslovakia.

Improved Soviet-British relations. In 1933 diplomatic relations with the USA were restored. In the summer of 1935, the 7th Congress of the Comintern, taking into account the new situation, declared fascism the main danger and invited its supporters to pursue the policy of the Popular Front - the policy of rebuffing fascism, expanding the social rights of workers. The USSR supplied weapons to Spain, and also sent about three thousand pilots, tankers, sailors and military advisers there.

At the same time, the Stalinist leadership, considering the inevitable clash of "world capitalism" with the "first country of socialism", heading for the support of the world revolutionary movement, did not actually refuse to interfere in the internal affairs of other countries, did not make serious distinctions between fascist regimes and democratic governments of capitalist states. Stalin's desire to turn the Comintern into a super-centralized world party, coordinating all its actions with the "leader", was preserved. In particular, in Spain, the Soviet secret services continued to fight against the "Trotskyists", anarchists, interfering in the internal affairs of the country. Many of the leaders of illegal communist parties who were in the USSR were destroyed in 1937-1938.

All this led to distrust of the USSR on the part of the Western powers.

In turn, England, France and the USA, pursuing their own interests, often covered up their concern for the preservation of colonial empires, the desire for new conquests, the desire to direct German aggression eastward, against the USSR, with peaceful phrases. An example of behind-the-scenes deals was the Munich Agreement (September 1938), according to which England, France, Italy and Germany, in the absence of Czechoslovakia, agreed to transfer to Germany the western lands of Czechoslovakia, the so-called "Sudetland". By making concessions to Hitler, England and France sought to stay out of the impending war. The government of Czechoslovakia, fearing Stalin no less than Hitler, rejected the proposed Soviet assistance and accepted the decision of the Munich Conference.

Thus, in the 1930s, on the eve of World War II, huge political, economic and cultural changes took place in the Soviet Union. Having successfully defeated his competitors, I.V. Stalin strengthened the sole power in the Bolshevik party and in the state.

The multi-million repressions were not an end in themselves. With their help, the Stalinist leadership managed to build a totalitarian state, seizing a monopoly not only on the material, but also on the spiritual values ​​of its people. To the detriment of the people's well-being, a social system was created in the Soviet Union, which was formally called socialist, but in reality had little in common with socialism. It was a state that was at the stage of the early industrial mode of production. His politics, economics and ideology were aimed at the implementation at any cost of the coming victory over world capital.

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CHAPTER X THE BOLSHEVIK PARTY IN THE FIGHT FOR THE SOCIALIST INDUSTRIALIZATION OF THE COUNTRY (1926-1929)

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Features of industrialization in the USSR s, ran them. I sue for the SR in the XIV Congress of the CPSU (b) of the SS y o w o r y m p r The course for socialist a t y o u ores bo about the Bolsheviks, which the Bolsheviks took place at the end of December 1925 in Moscow.

Features of industrialization in the USSR INDUSTRIALIZATION, the process of creating large-scale industrialization of machine production and on this basis the transition from agrarian to industrial society. Industrialization in the USSR - the USSR is overcoming the technical and economic backwardness of the country, turning it from an agrarian into an industrial one; elimination of the backwardness of the agricultural sector of the economy, the creation defense industry.

What reasons made industrialization necessary? ü In 1928, the whole country produced 2 trucks and 3 tractors per day. About a quarter of textile equipment, more than half of steam turbines, almost 70% of machine tools and tractors were purchased abroad. ü By 1926, light and food industries were largely restored, but heavy industry did not reach the level of 1913. ü In terms of industrial production per capita, the USSR lagged behind the advanced Western countries by 530 times. ü In 1927, a conflict broke out between the USSR and Great Britain over the assistance provided to British miners by the USSR. England accused the USSR of interfering in internal affairs and severed diplomatic relations with it.

The need for the existence of the USSR in a hostile capitalist environment The need to quickly overcome the technical and economic backwardness of the country The need to ensure the country's high defense capability The need to overcome the USSR's dependence on imported machinery and equipment The party's course towards industrialization

The goals of industrialization Elimination of the technical and economic backwardness of the country Achieving economic independence Creation of a powerful defense industry Development of basic industries (fuel, metallurgical, mechanical engineering, chemical)

The discussion about the choice of pace, methods and At the plenum of the Central Committee in April 1929, the point of view of I.V. Stalin won, the Bukharin group was accused of a right deviation. A course was set for accelerated industrialization. JV Stalin NI Bukharin This meant the end of the NEP in industry. A "sparing" option of industrialization of the gradual accumulation of resources through the continuation of the NEP. A version of forced industrialization, the need for which was justified by a foreign political threat. "We are 50,100 years behind the developed countries. We must cover this distance in 10 years. Either we do it, or we will be crushed"

Features of industrialization in the USSR Guess where to get the funds for industrialization? Sources of industrialization üredistribution of budget funds in favor of industrial sectors (at the expense of the agricultural sector and other industries) üobtaining additional income due to the export of grain, oil, timber, furs, gold, oil and other goods (treasures of the Hermitage) income tax from urban and rural population

Sources of industrialization ü Compliance with the regime of the strictest economy in spending public funds From the appeal of M. N. Ryutin “To all members of the CPSU (b)”: wages workers and employees, unsustainable open and disguised taxes, inflation, rising prices and a fall in the cost of gold coins ... led the whole country to a deep crisis, monstrous impoverishment of the masses and famine both in the countryside and in the city ... "Assignment: Compare the positive and negative social consequences of the accelerated industrialization

THE FIRST FIVE-YEAR PLAN 1928-1932 In May 1929, at the Fifth All-Union Congress of Soviets, the first five-year plan for the economic and socialist development of the USSR “Five-Year Plan in Four Years!” was approved.

“The work went along the lines of correcting and refining the five-year plan in terms of increasing the pace and reducing the time ... People who talk about the need to slow down the pace of development of our industry are enemies of socialism, agents of our class enemies”

First Five-Year Plan Cars thousand units. Tractors thous. Pig iron million tons Produced in 1928 3, 3 1, 8 0, 8 Plan for 1932 10 53 100 Stalin's amendments to the plan 15 -17 170 200 Actually produced in 1932 6, 1 50, 8 23, 9

The first five-year plan Millions of people with great enthusiasm worked almost for free at the construction sites of the five-year plan. A competition was launched across the country under the slogan "Let's take a year from the five-year plan, we will complete the five-year plan in four years!" .

First Five-Year Plan Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works Kuznetsk Iron and Steel Works Stalingrad Tractor Plant Mines of Donbass Moscow Automobile Plant Dneproges The tasks of the First Five-Year Plan were not fully fulfilled, but a significant step forward was made. The production of products of heavy industry grew 2.8 times, machine-building - 4 times. Entered service:

Magnitogorsk, Kuznetsk metallurgical plants Stalingrad, Kharkov tractor plants. Dneproges Results of the Five-Year Plans The First Five-Year Plan 1928-1932 Donbass and Kuzbass Mines Moscow, Gorky Automobile Plants

Social Problems of the First Five-Year Plan To fulfill the plans, a huge amount of labor force was required. Unemployment was eliminated in a short time. In 1930, the USSR closed last exchange labor. However, at the construction sites of the five-year plan, mostly unskilled labor was used, and there was an acute shortage of engineering and technical personnel.

Social problems of the first five-year plan What were the working conditions at the construction sites of the first five-year plan? “We worked around the clock. At night, the site was illuminated by spotlights, the night shifts did not want to reduce output. When floating fish suddenly appeared in half of the pit, they continued to dig, standing waist-deep in icy water ... Excavation work did not stop even when severe frosts fettered the viscous, clay soil of the site. The excavators were suffocating in the cold, but the stone ground had to be broken at all costs. » Bardin I. P. "The Life of an Engineer"

Social problems of the first five-year plan Only the facts. During the years of the first five-year plan, 128.5 thousand specialists with higher and secondary education were trained. The number of higher and secondary technical educational institutions. They began to create evening departments at institutes, industrial academies and technical colleges. The best young people were sent to study on vouchers from party and Komsomol organizations.

Social Problems of the First Five-Year Plan In 1930, the State Planning Committee of the USSR issued an order to include the labor of prisoners in the planned economy. For this purpose, the Main Directorate of Camps (GULAG) was created as a subdivision of the People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs.

Sources of industrialization üCompliance with the strictest economic regime in spending public funds üUse of prisoner labor According to official data during the construction of the canal in Bel. Balt. Lage died in 1931, 1438 prisoners, in 1932 - 2010 people, in 1933 8870 prisoners due to hunger in the country and emergency work before the completion of construction Construction of the White Sea Canal

What are the working conditions of prisoners? “From the beginning of the 30s. industrialization, the labor of prisoners was used at construction sites, sent to the most difficult work: they laid canals, built railways, mines. On February 13, 1931, the Council of Labor and Defense adopted a resolution on the construction of a canal connecting the Baltic and White Seas. Thousands of prisoners found their death on this 227 km route. In just 20 months - from September 1931 to April 1933, the canal was built. Of the 400 million rubles allocated by the state for construction. spent only 95 million. The daily norm for a canal soldier is “two cubic meters of granite rock, and 100 meters of its removal on a wheelbarrow.” The prisoners worked almost without sleep, because the canal had to be commissioned ahead of schedule.

Second Five-Year Plan The 17th Congress of the AUCPB approved the second five-year plan for the development of the national economy for 1933-1937. The growth of light industry had to exceed the development of heavy industry.

The second five-year plan 1933-1937. The Second Five-Year Plan turned the country into an industrial, economically independent power. By the end of 1937, the output of all industry had increased by 2.2 times compared with 1932, and by 4.5 times compared with 1928.

Factories - get up, Ranks - close! The second five-year plan Azovstal and Zaporizhstal Ural Carriage Works Chelyabinsk Tractor Works Kramatorsk Heavy Engineering Plant Over 80% of all industrial output was produced by newly built or reconstructed enterprises. For 10 years, at the cost of incredible efforts and hardships, the USSR overtook the leading states of Europe in its industrial power.

Magnitogorsk, Kuznetsk metallurgical plants Stalingrad, Kharkov tractor plants. Dneproges Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant Results of Five-Year Plans First Five-Year Plan 1928-1932 Second Five-Year Plan 1933-1937 Azovstal, Mines of Donbass and Kuzbass Moscow, Gorky Automobile Plants Zaporizhstal Uralsky, Kramotorsky Heavy Engineering Plants. Aircraft factories in Kharkov, Moscow, Kuibyshev.

The position of the workers. Stakhanovite movement. The second five-year plan was declared the time of the turn towards man. “There are no fortresses that the Bolsheviks would not take” “Man is the most valuable capital” “Cadres decide everything”. January 1, 1935 Food cards were abolished. Commercial prices were abolished and uniform prices were introduced, much higher than before.

Sources of industrialization ü Compliance with the strictest economic regime in spending public funds ü Use of prisoner labor ü Carrying out state loans from the population Workers were forced to subscribe to a state loan. This money went to the needs of industrialization.

The position of the workers Housing wages were low, but living conditions did not improve, the population of cities was constantly increasing. The workers usually lived in communal apartments or barracks without any amenities.

The Stakhanov movement Proudly walks along the Pole Changes the course of rivers High mountains are shifted by the Soviet common man. In August 1935, a non-party miner Alexei Stakhanov cut down 102 tons of coal per shift instead of 7 tons according to the norm. Stakhanov's initiative was taken up by other miners and spread to many branches of industry.

Stakhanov movement P. Angelina E. V. and M. I. Vinogradov N. A. Izotov A. Kh. Busygin Newspapers reported on the achievements of N. A. Izotov, A. Kh. Busygin, E. V. and M. I. Vinogradov. In December 1935, the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks approved the "initiative of the working people." Production rates in the industry were increased by 15 -20%

Stakhanovite movement. What is the Stakhanovite movement? “Then we consulted with Dusya Vinogradova (we are not sisters, but namesakes and friends) and with public organizations and also decided to support this new undertaking. By this time, we switched to servicing 100, and then 144 machine tools, but this was not the limit ... We had many followers "M. Mazai M. Vinogradova" In 1936, Makar Mazai set a world record by shooting 12 tons per shift. Steel from a square meter of the hearth of the furnace. Academicians directly hammered our heads, which is more than 4 tons. We cannot give one square meter of the area of ​​​​the hearth of an open-hearth furnace. ” Moskvitin M. "The Tale of Makar"

Sources of industrialization ü Compliance with the strict economy in spending public funds ü Use of prisoner labor ü Carrying out state loans from the population ü Using the enthusiasm of the Soviet people ü Organization of social competition and shock work In 1932 -1933. passport system was introduced

Average annual growth rates of industrial output in the USSR, USA, England and France Countries 1918–1929 1930–1941 1. USSR All industry Large industry 2. USA 3. England 4. France 6, 9 9, 7 3, 1 1 , 2 7, 9 16, 5 18, 0 1, 2 2, 1 – 2, 2 Number of large state-owned industrial enterprises built, restored and put into operation Years 1918–1929 1st five-year plan (1928–1932) (1933– 1937) Number of enterprises 2200 1500 4500

Commissioning of the most important production capacity Actual capacity in 1913 Coal, million tons per year Iron ore, million tons per year Pig iron, million tons per year Steel, million tons per year Vehicles thous. Tractors, thousand units Harvesters, thousand units 29 9 4.2 4.3 0 0 0 Capacity commissioned during industrialization 189 29 14.6 13.9 200 100 45 o. What changes took place in the economy during industrialization? o. What new industries appeared in the structure of the economy during industrialization?

The results of the first five-year plans Growth rates of heavy industry are 2-3 times higher than in 1913. In terms of absolute volumes of industrial production, they are second in the world (after the USA). The average annual growth rate of industrial production is the highest in the world - 10 -17%

The results of the first five-year plans The USSR has become a country capable of producing any kind of industrial products and doing without importing the necessary goods. Created in the 30s. economic potential allowed on the eve and during the war to deploy a diversified military-industrial complex.

The price of an industrial leap Is it so? qdecrease in the standard of living of the population qlagging behind in light industry qfamine of 1932-33 qplundering of the countryside qmassive repressions

Studying the history of our country, one cannot but briefly touch upon very important stages of its development - industrialization and collectivization. These processes brought the USSR to a new level of economy. However, both political scientists and economists evaluate them ambiguously.

Industrialization

This term refers to an accelerated socio-economic transition from the traditional to the industrial stage of development, with a significant increase in the share of industry in the economy. The transition process is based on new scientific knowledge and technologies.
From point of view economics the purpose of industrialization is the outstripping development of heavy industry and processing sectors of the economy in comparison with agriculture and resource extraction. This process has a global character. The UK was the first to fully implement industrial revolution in the middle of the 19th century.

Industrialization in the USSR

The aim was to turn the Soviet Union from an agricultural state into a developed industrial power, not inferior to the leading countries of capitalism. Accelerated expansion of industrial capacity began in May 1929. Industrialization was based on five-year plans for the development of the economy.

By the beginning of the war, heavy industry increased production volumes by 4 times. Now the Soviet state has become economically independent and capable of defense.

GOELRO Plan

By the end of 1920, a special commission headed by the energy scientist G. M. Krzhizhanovsky developed a promising (for 10-15 years) Russian electrification project.

According to this document, it was planned to build 30 power plants in eight main regions of the European part of the country, the Urals, Siberia, the Caucasus and Turkestan. At the same time, the transport network was developing: the Volga-Don shipping canal was being built, old railway lines were being reconstructed and new ones were being laid.

Thanks to the implementation of the GOELRO plan, the production of electrical energy by 1932 increased by 7 times. Thus, the given rates of industrial development in the USSR became possible.

Features of the economic development of the USSR

The industrialization carried out by the country's leadership was characterized by the following specific features:
Investments were made in the metallurgical industry, mechanical engineering and construction of production facilities.
Funds from the agricultural sector were pumped into industry with the help of the so-called "price scissors", when industrial goods turned out to be much more expensive than agricultural products.
The state carried out a strict centralization of funds and resources for the implementation of the chosen economic policy.
A new (socialist) form of ownership has been created in the form of state cooperative-collective farm ownership.
The process of industrialization was based on five-year plans developed by a special state body - the State Planning Committee of the USSR.
They used exclusively their own resources without attracting private capital.

Collectivization

This policy pursued by the state in 1 928-1937 years, had the goal of uniting the farms of individual peasants into collective farms (collective farms and state farms). Only in this way could the process of industrialization be provided with everything necessary:
it was easier to withdraw agricultural products from social production;
the transition of the able-bodied population from the agricultural to the industrial sector was simplified.

IN 1927 XV Party Congress approved the decision to socialization of peasant property. The Western republics joined the process after they joined the USSR. They later returned to private property to the ground.

Continuous collectivization (the main stage) took place in 1929-1930. During its implementation, administrative-command methods were put at the forefront.

The peasantry was not ready for the new economic system. For example, the large livestock breeding complexes that were being created did not have farms, feed stocks, there were no qualified specialists - livestock breeders, livestock specialists, veterinarians.

The policy of forcible seizure of almost all grown crops, the destruction of private farmsteads, mass arrests caused riots everywhere in villages and villages. In 1929, the plenum of the Central Committee of the party decided on the so-called "twenty-five thousand"- workers of industrial enterprises sent for permanent work in collective farms.

Management was excessively centralized, there were practically no experienced leaders on the ground, wages on collective farms were low, inept managers were only engaged in the struggle for "overfulfillment of the plan." The result of two years of collectivization was the mass death of livestock and the lack of seed grain in the farms.

The famine of the thirties

Crop failure 1931 year had no effect on the rates of withdrawal of agricultural products, plans for the supply of grain to the state and for export were not adjusted. There was a difficult situation with food, which caused famine in the eastern regions of the country.

Due to the freezing of winter crops, the prospects for the 1932 harvest were doubtful. In addition, the collective farms did not have seed material, since the grain reserves were handed over to fulfill the grain procurement plan. Working livestock for the sowing campaign also did not turn out to be in the required quantity - it fell from starvation or, due to exhaustion, was unsuitable for work.

The subsequent reduction in the supply of grain for export and plans for grain procurement and the delivery of livestock could no longer save the situation. Crop failure 1932 years, violation of the basic principles of agricultural technology, huge losses during harvesting of grown grain caused famine in 1932-1933.

The Bolshevik Party, trying to bring the country out of the crisis, was forced to change the policy of managing the agrarian sector, reorganize the system for purchasing agricultural products and distributing them. As a result in the autumn of 1933 a good harvest was gathered.

The liquidation of the kulaks

At the stage of complete collectivization, the party leadership considered the prosperous stratum in the countryside - kulaks - the main obstacle to the socialization of individual peasant farms.

The mass eviction of dispossessed peasants and their families to remote regions of the USSR began. expulsion about 2 million people. The same measure was applied to the middle and poor peasants who did not want to join collective farms.
Settlers died en masse - they were not supplied with food and agricultural equipment for farming in violation of instructions. And the new places turned out to be unsuitable for agricultural use. According to some reports, about 10 million people died during the period of collectivization.

Since the end of the last century, disputes about the results of the two most important stages in the economic and social life of the USSR have not ceased. However, it is not denied that the former Soviet states are building their economies on the industrial base created during the Soviet era. Some political scientists call the policy pursued during the period of collectivization the genocide of the Soviet people. This question also remains debatable.

Stalinist modernization- a set of measures carried out in the USSR in the 1930s-1940s. with the aim of overcoming the country's general backwardness from the West, preparing for war and building socialism. Its main activities were industrialization, collectivization and cultural revolution.

Industrialization

Industrialization Goals:

1. Achievement of economic independence.
2. Creation of a powerful military-industrial complex.
3. Elimination of the technical and economic backwardness of the USSR.
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As in the years of the New Economic Policy, the most pressing issue was the question of sources of funds for industrialization. Due to the difficult international situation of the USSR, these sources had to be exclusively internal.

Ways (ways) of obtaining funds for industrialization:

1. Transfer of funds from agriculture (collectivization) and light industry. All enterprises were divided into two categories. Category "A" - strategically important enterprises and enterprises producing means of production (heavy industry); category "B" - secondary enterprises serving the needs of the population (light industry). Category B enterprises were financed on a residual basis.
2. State monopoly on foreign trade(grain, gold, raw materials are exported). All proceeds went to the purchase of industrial equipment.
3. Confiscation of funds from the private sector. This was done both indirectly - through exorbitant taxes, and directly - through direct administrative pressure. In industry and trade, the private sector was finally curtailed in 1933.
4. Withdrawal of funds from the population through increased taxes, higher prices, card distribution of goods (from 1928 to 1934) and the sale of bonds. The standard of living during the years of industrialization fell by half.
5. Using the labor enthusiasm of the population. It reaches its peak in 1935, when the Stakhanovite movement begins. At this time, moral stimulation prevails, which allows you to solve large-scale production problems with maximum cost savings. In 1939, the “turn towards man” will begin, i.e. expansion of material incentives for workers.
6. Exploitation of the labor of GULAG prisoners, which is used en masse in the most difficult and dangerous areas of work.

The mass enthusiasm of the population and forced labor made it possible to partially compensate for the lack of modern technology and qualified specialists.

1926-1928 gg. historians define it as First stage industrialization. During this time, capital investments in industry more than tripled, although most of them went to the reconstruction and technical re-equipment of already existing factories and plants.

1928-1932 gg. - I five-year plan. The first five-year plan was drawn up by the leading economists of the USSR (N. Kondratiev, A. Chayanov) and assumed an increase in production volumes by almost 3 times. The implementation of the plan was disrupted due to the assault and confusion caused by the party's call for the implementation of the plan ahead of schedule and the adjustments made to it by Stalin, who significantly increased the planned indicators. However, during the First Five-Year Plan was built whole line enterprises (Dneproges, Stalingrad Tractor Plant, Rosselmash, etc. - about 1,500 in total) and production volumes were noticeably increased.

During the years of the first and second five-year plans ( 1933-1937 gg. - the only five-year plan that fully fulfilled the plan) a coal-metallurgical base is being created in the east (Magnitogorsk - Kuznetsk), an oil base in Bashkiria, new lines are being built railways(Turksib, Novosibirsk - Leninsk), new industries appear, which were not in pre-revolutionary Russia.

The meaning of industrialization:

1. In terms of industrial production in the USSR in the late 30s. ranked second in the world after the USA. Particularly noticeable was the growth in production in heavy industry.
2. The size of the working class has grown considerably.
3. Private capital has been completely ousted from industry and trade.
4. The general nature of the economy has changed significantly - the country has turned from an agrarian into an agro-industrial one.
5. The social problems characteristic of capitalism were eradicated - unemployment disappeared (the last labor exchange was closed in 1930).
6. In a number of areas, the qualitative lag of Soviet industry was overcome. The USSR has become one of the countries capable of producing any kind of industrial product and doing without importing essential goods.
7. Created in the 30s. The economic potential made it possible on the eve and during the war years to develop a diversified military-industrial complex, whose products in many respects surpassed the best world models. It was the economic superiority of the USSR over the enemy that became one of the reasons for our victory in the Great Patriotic War.
8. Forced industrialization was carried out at the cost of degradation of a number of sectors of the economy, primarily light industry and the agricultural sector.
9. The country has established a command and mobilization business model, which is economic basis totalitarian regime.

Already in the late 30s. the pace of industrialization is slowing down - there are not enough material resources and professionally trained personnel.

Collectivization

Carrying out grandiose industrialization required a radical restructuring of agriculture, which was perceived as a source of resources. In addition, growing cities needed more and more food. The decision to start collectivization was made in December 1927, at the XV Congress of the CPSU (b) - " Collectivization Congress».

Collectivization has officially begun November 7, 1929 when Stalin's article appeared in the Pravda newspaper Year of the great break". In it, the Soviet state was given the task of rebuilding agriculture in the shortest possible time.

At the end of December 1929, Stalin announced the end of the NEP and the transition to the policy of "liquidating the kulaks as a class." The first stage of collectivization began (until March 1930).

At the same time, two groups of activities were carried out - “ solid» collectivization (mass forced creation of collective farms) and dispossession. Theoretically, it was possible to create other types of cooperatives (artels, TOZs, etc.), but, in fact, only collective farms were allowed to be created.

The liquidation of kulak farms was carried out, firstly, with the aim of transferring their property to collective farms, secondly, to destroy the political opposition to Soviet power in the countryside, and, thirdly, to suppress peasant discontent. It can be argued that dispossession was not an economic, but, above all, a political process.

By the spring of 1930, it became clear to Stalin that "solid" collectivization could lead to a serious economic and political crisis - spontaneous uprisings of peasants arose in the grain regions, there was a mass slaughter of cattle, unrest began in the army. March 2, 1930 in Pravda published his article “ Dizzy with success". Stalin laid all the blame for the situation on the executors, local workers, declaring that "collective farms cannot be planted by force." After this article, Stalin began to be perceived by the majority of peasants as a people's defender. The second, softer than the first, stage of collectivization began. However, by 1932, "solid" collectivization resumed.

The meaning of collectivization:

1. Rural overpopulation has been eliminated - peasants are fleeing to the cities from an unbearable life. To limit migration in 1932, passports were introduced for the urban population.
2. There is a reduction in the number of livestock and acreage. This led to an unprecedented famine that engulfed approximately 25-30 million people (1932-1933). Despite the scale of the famine, 18 million centners of grain were exported abroad to obtain hard currency for the needs of industrialization.
3. The fall in grain production, despite a completely satisfactory level of mechanization (this problem was solved by the MTS created in 1928). Before collectivization, the peasants, who worked perfectly “for themselves,” were engaged in outright sabotage on the collective farms. Nevertheless, the collective farms were able to feed the builders of numerous giant industrial enterprises.
4. Collectivization undermined the authority of Soviet power in the countryside. It is no coincidence that the population of the areas most affected by dispossession during the Great Patriotic War greeted the Germans with bread and salt.
5. Collectivization created the necessary conditions for the implementation of industrialization plans.

cultural revolution

Aims of the Cultural Revolution in the 1930s:

1. Training of specialists for the modernization of Soviet society. The shortage of engineering personnel was especially acute. To achieve this goal, the policy of raising the educational level of the population continues. In 1930, universal primary education was introduced in the country. In the 30s. illiteracy was largely eradicated. In 1937 seven-year education became universal. Hundreds of new universities are opening, mostly engineering and technical.
2. The establishment of total state control over the spiritual life of society. Centralized government-controlled "creative unions" of the intelligentsia are being created: the Union of Composers (1932), the Union of Writers (1934), the Union of Artists (in 1932 - at the republican level, on an all-Union scale it was formalized in 1957). The dominant creative direction was proclaimed " socialist realism”, which demanded from the authors of works of literature and art not just a description of “objective reality”, but also “images in its revolutionary development”. The adoption of strict canons of artistic creativity deepened the internal inconsistency in the development of culture, which was characteristic of the entire Soviet period.

In the country, the works of A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, L.N. Tolstoy, I. Goethe, W. Shakespeare, palaces of culture, clubs, libraries, museums, theaters were opened. New works by A.M. Gorky, M.A. Sholokhov, A.P. Gaidar, A.N. Tolstoy, B.A. Pasternak.

The performances of K.S. Stanislavsky, V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko, V.E. Meyerhold, A.Ya. Tairov.

Soviet cinema is developing. The first sound film - "A ticket to life" directed by N.V. Ekka. With great success in the cinemas "Seven Brave" S.A. Gerasimov, “Chapaev” by S. and G. Vasiliev, “We are from Kronstadt” by N. A. Dzigan and others.

A significant contribution to the development of world musical art was made by S.S. Prokofiev and D.D. Shostakovich.

A notable phenomenon in the development of fine arts were paintings and sculptures by V.I. Mukhina (“Worker and Collective Farm Woman”), M.V. Grekov, architectural structures by V.L. Vesninykh, A.V. Shchusev.

In the 1930s, notable successes were achieved in the field of nuclear physics and electronics (P.L. Kapitsa, A.F. Ioffe), mathematics (I.M. Vinogradov, M.V. Keldysh), physiology (school of Academician I. P. Pavlov), biology (N.I. Vavilov), theory of space flights (K.E. Tsiolkovsky, F.A. Zandler).

The studies of the drifting station "North Pole-1", headed by I.D. Papanin, non-stop record flights B.A. Chkalova, V.K. Kokkinaki, M.A. Gromova, V.S. Grizodubova.

The state invested huge funds in the creation of various design bureaus, where new models of military equipment were developed: tanks (Zh.Ya. Kotin - KV tank, M.I. Koshkin - T-34), aircraft (A.I. Tupolev, S. V. Ilyushin, N.N. Polikarpov, A.S. Yakovlev), artillery pieces and mortars (V.G. Grabin, I.I. Ivanov, F.F. Petrov), automatic weapons (V.A. Degtyarev, F.V. Tokarev).

But at the same time, entire historical and cultural layers that did not fit into the schemes of party ideologists were deleted. The work of M.A. was subjected to persecution and hushed up. Bulgakov. S.A. Yesenina, A.P. Platonova, O.E. Mandelstam, painting by P.D. Korina, K.S. Malevich, P.N. Filonov.

The 1930s became a time of unprecedented persecution of the church. Unique monuments of church architecture are being destroyed: the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, Miracles and Resurrection monasteries in the Kremlin, etc.

In 1938, the “Short Course in the History of the CPSU(b)” by I.V. Stalin, which became the ideological basis for research and teaching not only history and philosophy, but even technical disciplines.