1. Division of labor: types, types and forms

2. Commodity production

3. Trade and commodity circulation

1. Division of labor is a historical process of separation, consolidation, modification of individual types of activity, which occurs in social forms of differentiation and implementation of various types of labor activity.

Types of division of labor:

1. natural;

2. technical;

3. public

Natural division of labor– there is a separation of labor by gender and age. This division of labor is called natural because its character stems from the very nature of man, from the differentiation of functions that each of us must perform due to our physical, intellectual and spiritual merits.

Technical division of labor- this is such a differentiation of people’s labor activity, which is predetermined by the very nature of the means of production used, primarily technically and technologically.

For example, when the sewing machine replaced the needle, a different organization of labor was required, as a result of which a significant number of people engaged in this type of activity were released. As a result, they were forced to look for other areas of application of their labor. Here, the very replacement of hand tools with a mechanism required changes in the existing system of division of labor.

Social division of labor - represents the natural and technical division of labor, taken in their interaction and in unity with economic factors(costs, prices, profits, method, supply, taxes, etc.), under the influence of which the separation and differentiation of various types of labor activity takes place. This type of division of labor is predetermined by the socio-economic conditions of production. For example, a farmer, having certain land plots, are engaged in both crop production and animal husbandry. However, economic calculations suggest that if some of them specialize mainly in growing and preparing feed, while others focus only on fattening animals, then production costs will be significantly reduced for both.

Sectoral division of labor– is determined by the production conditions, the nature of the raw materials used, technology, equipment and the manufactured product.

Territorial division of labor– characterized by the spatial arrangement of various types of work activities.

Varieties of territorial division of labor are district, regional and international division of labor. Neither sectoral nor territorial division of labor can exist outside of each other.

Types of division of labor:

1. general;

2. private;

3. single.

General division of labor– characterized by the isolation of large types (spheres) of activity, which differ from each other in the form of the product.

This includes the separation of animal husbandry from agriculture, crafts from agriculture, and the separation of trade from industry.

Private division of labor- This is the process of separating individual industries within large types of production.

The private division of labor includes both individual industries and sub-industries and individual industries. For example, within the framework of industry we can name such sectors as mechanical engineering, metallurgy, mining, which in turn include whole line sub-sectors.

Unit division of labor– characterizes the separation of the production of individual components of finished products, as well as the separation of individual technological operations.

The unit division of labor includes detailed, unit-by-unit and operational division of labor. This division of labor usually takes place within individual enterprises.

Forms of division of labor:

1. differentiation;

2. specialization;

3. universalization;

4. diversification.

Differentiation consists in the process of separation, “spin-off” of individual industries, determined by the specifics of the means of production used, technology and there. In other words, this is the process of dividing social production into new types of activity.

For example, previously a commodity producer was engaged not only in the production of any goods, but also in their sale. Now he has focused all his attention on the production of goods, while their implementation is carried out by another, completely independent economic entity.

Specialization is based on differentiation, but it develops on the basis of concentrating efforts on a narrow range of products.

For example, a commodity producer produced various types of furniture, but later decided to concentrate efforts on producing only bedroom sets; the manufacturer did not abandon the production of furniture, but reorganized production based on replacing universal tools with specialized ones.

Universalization represents the antithesis of specialization. It is based on the production or sale of a wide range of goods and services.

An example is the production of all types and types of furniture and even the production of kitchen utensils and cutlery at one enterprise.

Diversification– this form of division of labor should be understood as an expansion of the range of products.

This is achieved in two ways:

1st – market diversification – It is characterized by an expansion of the range of manufactured goods that are already produced by other enterprises.

2nd way – production diversification, which is directly related to scientific and technological progress, with the emergence of qualitatively new goods and technologies. Within the framework of industrial diversification, one should distinguish: technological, detail and product diversification.

2. Commodity production and market relations.

Having limited ourselves to the characteristics of the division of labor, let us turn to commodity production. Any isolation of one or another work activity causes refusal to perform other types or work functions. But a person needs the whole range of goods to satisfy his needs. Moreover, these needs are constantly increasing, changing and expanding.

Consequently, in order to satisfy one’s needs for at least one product, the production of which one or another economic entity has refused, it is necessary to enter into exchange relations with other economic entities that produce this product. When entering into an exchange relationship, each commodity producer, receiving some benefit from its counterparty, is forced to make concessions and give away other benefits in return. There is an exchange of goods. Thus, commodity production is a social form of production in which products are produced not for one’s own consumption, but to satisfy the needs of others through exchange, purchase and sale on the market.

A commodity is a product of labor intended for exchange in order to satisfy social needs, i.e. the needs not of the commodity producer himself, but of any member of society.

Any product has exchange value, or the ability to be exchanged in a certain proportion for other goods. However, all goods enter into exchange only because they can satisfy one or another need.

3. Trade and commodity circulation

Initially, people entered into a simple commodity exchange, or such exchange relations in which the sale and purchase of goods coincided in time and occurred without the participation of money. The form of such a commodity exchange is: T(product) - T(product). As a result of the development of exchange, new opportunities opened up for the isolation of types of activities, because the guarantee of obtaining missing goods or products, the production of which the commodity producer consciously refused, increased. Thus, commodity exchange was replaced by commodity circulation, which is based on money - this is a universal means of purchasing that has the ability to be exchanged for any product. With the emergence of money, exchange was divided into two opposite and complementary acts: sale and purchase. This created conditions that allowed the intermediary to join in the exchange. As a result, a new major division of labor occurred - the separation of trade into a special large type of economic activity. Thus, commodity circulation is an exchange relationship that is mediated by a monetary equivalent, which has the form: T(product) - D(money) - T(product).

2. The very beginning of the division of labor

“With the advent of the ready-made man, an additional new element arose - society,” noted K. Marx.

Since it is clear that the means of exchange were present in public life before state formations, including the great empires of antiquity, the study is forced to delve into the economy of the primitive communal system in order to discover the origins of money not among the inhabitants of castles and temples, but in the communities of primitive shepherds, hunters and farmers.

Commodity exchange, like other methods of social regulation of economic life within primitive society, contributed to the intertwining of individual, group and local needs, and the formation of a single social interest. When we define a person as a social animal, behind this general statement there is a complex of very specific human properties expressed in behavior.

Ethnographer Pierre Clastré cites a fact demonstrating one of the options for a reproducible social connection. The South American Indians, the Guayaks, have a taboo on hunted game or animals: a hunter cannot eat what he has shot or caught. He must exchange his catch for other food with one of the members of the tribe.

The famous English sociologist and ethnographer B. Malinovsky mentions the custom of the inhabitants of the Trobriand Islands to give part of the harvest and hunting spoils to the “sister’s husband,” even when the sister is not really there.

Of course, when talking about product exchange in a primitive society, one should not assume that it was isolated into some independent sphere of activity. Here it is necessary to avoid transferring to antiquity modern ideas. The exchange of activities and products of labor at the local level, within the community and clan served as a model of interclan and intertribal exchange. Only if one adheres to the incorrect initial hypothesis of individual hunting and gathering can one develop thoughts about a hostile attitude towards strangers as the main psychological background of external contacts.

But isolated primitive communities are either fiction or the result of a confluence of unique circumstances. Human society could not have been formed either from lone hunters and gatherers, or from herds warring with each other.

The history of the division of labor has long been dominated by the “three-stage theory,” which was finally formalized in the book of the French archaeologist Gabriel de Mortillier, entitled “The Origin of Hunting, Cattle Breeding and Agriculture” and published in 1890. He summed up the views that had developed back in Ancient Greece, according to which three forms of economic management have successively replaced in the history of mankind: hunting-gathering, pastoralism and agriculture. The latter was considered the highest by the ancient Greeks, because they themselves were predominantly farmers.

Criticism of the three-stage theory began already in 1892 in the work of the German geographer Eduard Hahn, “Forms of Land Economy,” who, however, did not propose another, more correct theory. Since the theory of the three stages was adhered to by such authorities as A. Smith and J. J. Rousseau, E. Khan's correct remarks about this theory simply began to coexist with it, without undermining or refuting it.

What are these comments?

Agriculture is much older than cattle breeding, and in many places it developed independently from gathering. Academician N.I. Vavilov identified seven centers of origin of agriculture, believing that some of them should be considered primary. V. S. Titov proposes to consider three as primary: Western Asian, including Egypt and Mesopotamia, Indo-Chinese and Central American.

The domestication of animals occurred more among farmers than among hunters, since hunters did not have food supplies. Agriculture, which developed from gathering, gave impetus to the transition from an appropriating economy to a producing one, from an economy of immediate consumption to an economy in which there are stocks and distribution of consumption over time.

Interpretation of the statements of the classics of Marxism-Leninism in this regard requires that the researcher determine his position in advance: whether new data from history, ethnography and archeology convince him or not that the theory of the three stages is incorrect.

F. Engels wrote: “The shepherd tribes stood out from the rest of the barbarian masses - this was the first major social division of labor” (Marx K., Engels F. Soch., vol. 21, p. 160). The importance of this thought was emphasized by V.I. Lenin (Pol. collected works, vol. 39, pp. 67–68). But the high level of research culture did not allow either F. Engels or V.I. Lenin to write that the shepherd tribes separated from the tribes of hunters, and thereby fetter their own conclusions by attachment to one of the potentially correct theories.

Elsewhere, F. Engels speaks of “the division of labor between pastoral peoples and the remaining tribes that do not have herds.” Nowhere does he call these tribes hunting tribes, despite the fact that Adam Smith himself stated this directly and unequivocally.

Currently, according to archaeological data, the history of the division of labor can be schematically described as follows. 10 thousand years ago, tribes emerged from among hunters and gatherers and began cultivating cereals. This contributed to a significant increase in food production and created conditions for population growth. The growing population stimulated the processes of settlement of new, less adapted territories. In parallel, there was a redistribution of power, in modern terms - a delegation of powers from the tribal level down to the level of the clan and patriarchal family.

The production economy appeared for the first time, presumably, in Western and Central Asia, between the Mediterranean Sea and Iranian Khorasan. The outflow of surplus population took place through Kurdistan and Turkmenistan, as well as through the Balkans.

During the Middle Bronze Age, people from the central agricultural zone settled between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers and settled east to the Minusinsk Basin and west to the upper reaches of the Dnieper. During the resettlement, a gradual separation of the pastoral tribes from the “tribes without herds” occurred.

Thus, “the first major division of labor is the separation of tribal collectives with a producing economy from the environment of the appropriating economy (VIII-VI thousand years BC). The second major division of labor should be considered the separation from the tribes with a producing economy of the pastoral way of life - the latter third of the 3rd millennium BC."

At the time when the book "The Origin of the Family" was written, private property and the state,” nothing was known about the Neolithic revolution. All the more surprising is the flexibility of Engels’ formulation, which allowed for its possibility.

“The first social division of labor made regular exchange possible. Firstly, agricultural-pastoral tribes produced means of subsistence that were qualitatively different from the gathering tribes, and, secondly, they could produce more of these means than they needed to maintain life. This surplus was still small, but its existence was already of great importance,” writes the Soviet historian I. N. Khlopin and adds: “Complete isolation was never real. The exchange was carried out both between neighboring tribes and in stages.”

Therefore, one cannot subscribe to this opinion: “With the advent of craft as a branch of the economy, rudimentary commodity production arose. Craftsmen stop wandering and settle in certain places.”

It is generally accepted by modern historical science that the division of labor is in one way or another connected with the Neolithic revolution, which accelerated the development productive forces. But the origins of the division of labor go back to very ancient times and concern, as one would expect in accordance with Marxist ideas, the specialization of tools.

In England, in the county of Norfolk, in the early Neolithic era there were mines where flint was mined. It is precisely established that mass production of stone axes was carried out there until the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. The beginning of work in the mines dates back no less than the 5th millennium BC.

The production of axes was clearly specialized, although researchers still do not understand everything about the division of labor at that time. In particular, primary processing The flint ax was carried out directly in the mine. This is evidenced by the accumulations of chips (waste) preserved there. Thus, it was no longer the raw material that was brought to the surface, but the semi-finished product.

Finished products from such mines have been discovered hundreds of kilometers away. “It is possible that in the early period they were exchanged with neighboring villages and each time ended up several kilometers further,” writes John Wood in the book “The Sun, the Moon and Ancient Stones.” This assumption is belied by the significant production volumes: “However, the mines at Grimes Graves produced a significant number of axes, and their production would quickly cease if there were no constant distribution routes. Either traders left there with ready-made axes, or communities in need of axes acquired the required number of them is right next to the mines."

Thus, specialization in the production of tools inevitably leads to the conclusion about the development of trade, exchange of goods and trade routes.

There is no doubt that whatever this medium of exchange was, it was unlikely to resemble modern money. The above shows how many variations - in terms of material, scope, form, rules of application - can be allowed while maintaining the functions of money. A common opinion says: “In ancient times there could only be embryos of signs of value.” From the content of the previous chapters it follows that these “embryos” contained the possibility of performing at least two functions of money: a measure of value and a medium of exchange. The performance of these functions by any product of labor leaves no room for the idea that the early stages of economic development were based on the wise (or foolish) decisions of tribal leaders. Together with man, society arose, and with society, economy. Further development proceeded according to objective economic laws, to which all members of society are equally subject, regardless of the functions they perform.

It would seem that what do we care now about the role of tribal leaders or elders in ancient times? Is this really relevant? It turns out yes. Modern monetarists believe that since ancient times, economic life owes the direction of its development to the decisions of “strong” people. Since this is so, why not determine the direction of development of the modern economy for the president, who is guided by private logical conclusions, and not by knowledge of objective laws social development. The irony of the development of bourgeois economic theory The point here is that the mouthpiece of monetarism, the Chicago Journal of Political Economy, regularly publishes works on the economics of primitive society. Often these articles express interesting thoughts directed against the original monetarist concept of the susceptibility of any economy to the decisions of an individual.

Here is an article by Richard Posner discussing F. Pryor's book The Origins of Economics. A variety of topics are offered for researchers of primitive economics: an econometric analysis of the wedding price among the Eskimos, determining the price of information in the absence of a market among primitive tribes, the amount of food stored for the winter or rainy season, and much more. But it’s not the list of proposed works that matters. Posner literally shouts: when applying econometric methods to the primitive economy, do not consider the redistribution of products by leaders as the main model, this is anti-economic. I can’t even believe that it is in this magazine that the main anti-economic ideas are promoted - neo-voluntarism, which involves arbitrary intervention in the sphere of monetary circulation. R. Posner identifies two anti-economic approaches to the primitive economy: substantivism and formalism. He calls the first formless (what comes out of statistics is good). The second approach is when the researcher trusts the accepted rules of economic behavior, studies them, and not the actual economic life. Both approaches are characterized by the absence of “a preliminary formulation of the economic theory of primitive society. Both come down to checking whether the hypothesis put forward is confirmed by the available data.”

Well, why not attack the neo-petarianists? Published in a journal that constantly publishes new and new works by neo-monetarists, theorists of “supply economics” and “rational expectations”, it testifies to a serious break with the bourgeois economic thought from research in the field of cultural history.

“We cannot assume,” writes Posner, referring to Pryor’s book, “that in primitive society all products were distributed by persons occupying a high position.” An economy that depends on the psychology of individuals cannot exist. In the opposing ideas there is something of a child’s opinion about the structure of social life: no matter how much the children quarrel over toys, the teacher will come and settle everything. But in real economic life there are no “educators”, and society is governed by objective laws of development, no less strict than the laws of physics and chemistry. And an essential element of social relations has always been the exchange of labor products using a wide variety of means of such exchange.

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The social division of labor based on private property and exchange covered the entire structure of production and market relations within society. However, only under capitalism did the international division of labor embrace the peoples and countries of all continents, connecting them with each other through the world market.
The formation of the international division of labor went through several historical stages, during which the nature and forms evolved and changed, even in the capitalist system itself. With the formation of the socialist system and its expansion after the Second World War, a certain concrete distribution of production functions between countries and peoples took place, which led to a significant change in the global division of labor.
Early 60s was marked by a new stage in the division of labor in connection with the collapse of the colonial system of capitalism and the formation of new independent states in Asia, Africa, Latin America and left a noticeable imprint on the international division of labor, highlighting these countries as producers and suppliers of raw materials and food products to the world market. Thus, by the end of the 60s. a structure of the global division of labor has been formed, consisting mainly of three links: industrialized Western countries (manufacturers and suppliers of high-tech products), socialist countries (manufacturers and suppliers of goods from the mining and manufacturing industries), developing countries(suppliers of raw materials and food products). At the same time, it should be noted that the international division of labor in the 16th-18th centuries, during the period of geographical discoveries and the formation of the colonial system of Western countries, was distinguished by its specificity, and the division of labor between peoples was just beginning to emerge.
The international division of labor between metropolises and colonies was similarly different in the first and second half of the 20th century, when the old colonial system of distribution of responsibilities essentially lost its meaning. Moreover, all changes and evolutionary processes in the international division of labor were carried out within the framework of a capitalist market economy.
The division of labor and the development of the world market is based on the trade exchange of all countries of the world. But in the post-war period, the exchange of services and capital was added to the exchange of goods. World market, reflecting the intensive development of international economic relations, is a rather rich network of connections between various types of division of labor as a reflection of the need for universal coverage of the entire world with the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution, massive, expanded reproduction. The role of the global market is increasingly emerging as a standard of economic communication between peoples and states seeking economic and political stability and the resolution of interstate relations.
Within the framework of the modern global division of labor, the so-called old capitalist countries turned out to be the most developed Western Europe, USA, Canada, Japan. Since the beginning of the 70s. they were joined by a group of “Asian tigers” (Malaysia, Thailand, South Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan), as well as Brazil and some oil-producing countries in the Middle East. It should be noted that, despite the increase in foreign trade turnover of developing countries based on economic dependence on Western countries, their share in world trade during the 70-90s. tended to decrease. As for socialist countries, until the end of the 80s. The absolute value of trade turnover between them almost tripled, but in global turnover it remained virtually unchanged.
Worldwide division of labor, combining several types of international distribution of responsibilities in unified system, makes it possible for each partner to benefit from the rational placement of their productive forces, regardless of the natural factor. However, such a process is usually hampered by trade barriers as a manifestation of discrimination of some countries in relation to others, unbalanced pricing, forming price scissors between industrialized and developing countries within the world market.
The dynamic growth of production in individual countries (“Asian tigers”, small countries of Western Europe, Brazil, Argentina in the last 10-15 years), the increase in their scientific, technical and economic potential creates conditions for mutual interest in the development of the market based on the further division of labor. Within this framework, the concept of developing the production industry for the market is being implemented more and more effectively. As a result, the export structure became increasingly saturated with manufactured goods: mechanical engineering, instrument making, electronics, textiles, footwear. In practice, the international division of labor is aimed at realizing the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution and represents both a universal way of developing productive forces and a social factor that acts as the basis for the natural factor in the location of production. If world trade testifies to the existence of a world market, and the latter makes it possible to discover the world division of labor as the source of the movement of international exchange, then the entire resulting chain represents concrete evidence of the latter.
The intensive progress of internationalization of productive forces during the 60-90s, production itself, characteristic of any country, but not the same everywhere, regardless of the social system, required the direct expression of connections in the system of the global division of labor and their consideration in the formation of national production.
Currently, almost every country keeps records of the universal connections of its economy with the main groups of states in global economic exchange and its own contribution to such cooperation.
At the same time, most countries do not separate their economic programs from the intensification of comprehensive cooperation within the global market based on the existing mechanism of the international division of labor.
The development of traditional forms in the division of labor between peoples and countries is now complemented by integration processes and the activities of transnational corporations. These processes express the intensity of exchange and the growing mobility of production factors relative to national territories.
New forms of economic communication could not be limited to the boundaries of each country or group of countries, and therefore they reached global boundaries, opening up additional opportunities for mutually beneficial economic, scientific and technical cooperation for states, regardless of their affiliation with a particular social system.
Such forms in the 70-80s. and compensation agreements and industrial cooperation began in the form of the creation of mixed companies or joint ventures. Economic mechanism compensation agreements is that one partner provides the other with the necessary equipment on credit, financial resources for the construction of mining, energy or chemical enterprises, as well as plants and factories in some manufacturing industries. In response, the debtor compensates the funds received by supplying products from the enterprise built with the help of foreign loans.
Production cooperation involves the creation of joint production to produce certain goods that are sold within a certain quota in the countries that have created the joint venture. These forms were widely used by socialist and developing countries, receiving some new technologies from capitalist countries. In turn, capitalist countries, within the framework of the global division of labor, have also widely created and are creating joint ventures at the level of individual corporations and companies. All this became possible as historical experience accumulated, thanks to the art of management and the increase in the economic potential of individual countries.

More on topic 1.2. International division of labor:

1. 14.1 INTERNATIONAL DIVISION OF LABOR AND THE THEORY OF COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE
2. TREND TO DECREASING INTERNATIONAL DIVISION OF LABOR AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
3. 2. International division of labor and theories of absolute and comparative advantage
4. 2. The place and role of the economy of the Republic of Belarus in the international division of labor
5. § 2. Policy of English depository banks. - Weber and Jaffe’s theory of the “division of labor” in English banking. - The true limits of this division of labor. - Changes in the credit policy of English depository banks related to the concentration process.

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⚡ Division of labor ⚡ represents the separation of different types of labor activities. This process began with the natural division of labor by gender and age, which developed in the household. Outside this economy, the social division of labor began to grow. The modern system includes the following types such a division of labor:

1. Individual specialization is the concentration of a person’s activity on some special occupation, mastery of a certain profession or specialty.
2. Division of labor in an enterprise (separation of different types of work and operations in the workforce).
3. Isolation of creative activity on the scale of an industry, type of production (for example, electric power, oil production, automotive industry, etc.).
4. Division of national production into large types (industry, Agriculture and etc.).
5. Territorial division of labor within the country (with specialization in the production of certain products in different economic regions).
6. International division of labor (specialization of production of individual countries on certain types of products that these countries exchange).

The continuous development of the division of labor is objectively determined by the progress of technology and the human factor of production, as well as the conditions for improving the complex cooperation of labor. These conditions appeared already during the transition from simple cooperation of the labor of artisans in a capitalist enterprise to manufacture - the unification of the labor of workers separately performing many small operations.

Naturally, the subsequent transition from manufacture based on manual labor to industrial production greatly increased the efficiency of the division of labor.

So, specialization of creative activity serves as the most important means of increasing labor productivity (increasing people's output). This is a consequence of the fact that:

• firstly, the specialization of workers increases skill and involves their acquisition of more advanced knowledge and skills
• secondly, it saves working time, since by concentrating efforts, a person stops moving from one activity to another
• thirdly, specialization gives impetus to the invention and use of machinery, which makes production mass and highly efficient

Training in secondary vocational and higher education is of great importance educational institutions specialists in various fields of scientific, technical and economic activity.

Modern state educational standards for higher professional education, adopted in our country in 2000, provide for students to study:

1. general humanitarian and socio-economic disciplines (national history, cultural studies, political science, philosophy, economics, etc.)
2. general mathematical and natural science disciplines
3. general professional disciplines
4. disciplines of specialization

Thus, all students receive broad professional training combined with narrow specialization, which increases the quality of training of professionals and their relevance for practical activities.

Strictly speaking, the division of labor in human societies could always be found. After all, people have never existed alone, and cases of the emergence of a society and economy consisting of one person (such as Robinson Crusoe’s economy) were quite rare exceptions. People have always lived as at least a family or a tribe.

But the development of the division of labor in the economy of any society goes through several successive stages from a primitive state to an extremely complex scheme for the distribution of responsibilities. This evolution can be schematically represented as follows.

First stage. This is the natural division of labor within primitive society. In such a society there was always some distribution of responsibilities, determined partly by the nature of each person, partly by customs, and partly by the economies of scale you know. As a rule, men were engaged in hunting and war, and women looked after the hearth and nursed children. In addition, in almost any tribe one could find such “professions” as leader and priest (shaman, sorcerer, etc.).

Second stage. As the number of members of society grows, the need for each good increases and it becomes possible for individuals to concentrate on the production of individual goods. Therefore, in societies there appear different professions(artisans, farmers, cattle breeders, etc.).

The process of identifying professions begins, of course, with the production of tools. Even in the Stone Age (!) there were craftsmen engaged in hewing and polishing stone tools. With the discovery of iron, one of the most common professions in the past appears blacksmith.

Characteristic feature of this stage is that the manufacturer produces all (or almost all) possible products related to his profession (usually the processing of some type of raw material). For example, a blacksmith makes everything from nails and horseshoes to plows and swords, a carpenter makes everything from stools to cabinets, etc.

At this stage of the division of labor, part of the artisan's family members or even the entire family helps him in production, performing certain operations. For example, a blacksmith or carpenter can be helped by his sons and brothers, and a weaver or baker can be helped by his wife and daughters.

Third stage. With an increase in population and, accordingly, the size of demand for individual products, artisans begin to concentrate on the production of some one benefits. Some blacksmiths make horseshoes, others only knives and scissors, others only nails of different sizes, others only weapons, etc.

In Ancient Rus', for example, there were the following names of wood craftsmen: woodworkers, shipbuilders, bridge builders, woodworkers, builders, town workers(fortification of cities), vicious(production of battering guns), archers, crossmen, barrels, sleigh riders, wheelwrights etc.

An important factor influencing labor productivity is labor cooperation. The deeper the division of labor and the narrower the specialization of production becomes, the more producers become interdependent, the more necessary is consistency and coordination of actions between different industries. To operate in conditions of interdependence, labor cooperation is necessary, both in the conditions of the enterprise and in the conditions of the whole society.

Labor cooperation- a form of labor organization and work performance, based on the joint participation in a single labor process of a significant number of workers performing various operations of this process.

Form of organization social labor, in which a large number of people jointly participate in the same labor process or in different, but interconnected labor processes. Along with the division of labor, labor cooperation is a fundamental factor in the growth of productivity and efficiency in all areas professional activity.

Labor cooperation is the unity and coordination of joint actions of producers, various industries and sectors of the economy.

Labor cooperation allows you to avoid many mistakes, such as duplication of production and overproduction. On the other hand, consistency and coordination of actions, the unification of many efforts makes it possible to do what is beyond the power of one manufacturer or one enterprise. In the case of simple labor cooperation, which takes place, for example, in the construction of houses and hydroelectric power stations, the beneficial effect of cooperation is obvious. Labor cooperation takes place in all spheres economic activity, it takes on a wide variety of forms .

World experience shows that cooperation between labor and production is an objective historical process that is inherent in all methods of production, in countries with any socio-economic system. In production cooperation, advanced ideas and achievements in industries are combined and materialized fundamental science, research and development (R&D), production, design, management and information technologies.

Cooperation in modern world becomes the reproductive base of socio-economic and scientific-technical progress of the countries of the world, the core of world economic processes, regional economic integration, transnationalization (production, R&D, information and financial sphere, etc.), international industrial cooperation, globalization of the world economy. This form of interaction has become an accelerator for the structural restructuring of industry, its sectoral and interdepartmental complexes on a new technological basis, including the widespread use of electronic and information technologies.

International specialization and cooperation of production corresponds to a high level of development of the productive forces and acts as one of the most important objective prerequisites for the further development of the internationalization of economic life and strengthening the interconnection of national economies. Now hundreds of thousands of semi-finished products are circulating on the foreign market, analogues of which only one and a half to two decades ago were circulated only at the intra-company level.

It was the division of labor that caused the separation of various professions and occupations from each other, which contributed primarily to an increase in productivity, and the higher the level of industrial development of the country, the further this separation goes. What in a wild state of society is the work of one person, in a more developed state is performed by several. The labor required to produce any finished object is always distributed among a large number of people.

The division of labor, appearing in various types and forms of its manifestation, is a determining prerequisite for the development of commodity production and market relations, since the concentration of labor efforts on the production of a narrow range of products or on certain types of them forces commodity producers to enter into exchange relations in order to obtain what they lack good -

Division of labor: concept and General characteristics. 1

Degree of division of labor - 2

Types of division of labor. 3

Forms of manifestation of division of labor. 4

A. Smith on the division of labor. 4

From the history of the division of labor - 5

Labor cooperation. 6