Economic model- this is a simplified image of economic reality, allowing you to highlight the most important in a compressed compact form.

Economic models must meet a number of requirements:

There are two types of models: optimization and equilibrium. Optimization Models are used to study the behavior of individual economic agents or their groups and show how economic agents (their groups) maximize their welfare. Examples can be a model of behavior of the company, a model of behavior of an individual consumer. Equilibrium Models needed to study the relationship between economic agents and their groups. An example is a model of market price formation under the influence of the demand of all buyers and the supply of all sellers.

Microeconomics as a branch of economic theory.

Modern economic theory It is divided into two key parts: micro- and macroeconomics.

Microeconomics as an independent scientific discipline was formed in the last third of the 19th century. It deals with the study of the behavior of individual economic entities.

Economic entities (agents) are consumers (buyers of goods and services); firms producing goods and services; hired workers; capital investors; landowners. Economic entities differ in scale and functions in economic processes, but the role of each of these groups of economic entities is essential and necessary.

Microeconomics explains how and why economic decisions are made at the lowest level. For example, how changes in prices and income affect the purchase of goods, how firms plan the scale of production, why workers decide where and how much they need to work.

Microeconomics studies the interaction of economic entities in industry markets (markets in which homogeneous goods are circulated), explains the mechanisms of market pricing, the impact public policy on the activities of economic entities.

Today, the boundaries between micro- and macroeconomics are blurred, nevertheless, microeconomic analysis retains its specificity and develops in depth.

The central microeconomic problem is the problem of pricing, the formation of a market price.

Basic economic systems and their types.

In the last 150-200 years, various types of economic systems have operated in the world: two market ( market economy free competition (pure capitalism) and a modern market economy (modern capitalism)) and two non-market systems (traditional and administrative-command).

Market economy- This economic system based on the principles of free enterprise, the diversity of forms of ownership of the means of production, market pricing, contractual relations between business entities, limited state intervention in economic activity. It is inherent in socio-economic systems where there are commodity-money relations.

Uncategorized

It is a very common way of analyzing and forecasting the economic situation. And apply economic models can both at the level of an ordinary entrepreneur or investor, and at the level of large companies, states and when studying the processes taking place in the global economy.

The essence of economic modeling is to build a simplified scheme of processes occurring in a certain area of ​​the economy and highlight the most important factors in a compact and concise form.

Building an economic model requires compliance with a number of factors, these include:

— realistic assumptions made

- the ability to predict

— sufficient information support

- Possibility of practical testing.

In different cases, different complexes of these requirements are priority, it is quite difficult to build a model that fully corresponds to all of them, and the need for this arises quite rarely. This is due to the fact that the main goal of economic modeling is practical use models and, depending on the requirements, the priority requirements for the properties of the model also change.

Process building an economic model goes through a series of stages. There are three main stages:

1. Selection of variables used
2. Making the necessary assumptions
3. Identification of the main hypotheses that explain the relationship between model parameters.

Variables are specific data that form the basis of the model, they are divided into exogenous and endogenous. That is, internal and external. Assumptions make it possible to simplify a number of processes occurring in the model and thus simplify the model itself and speed up the process of its creation.

Nowadays, two types of economic models are most common - equilibrium and optimized. Optimized ones are mainly used in marketing research, market research. In such models, various marginal indicators most often appear, such as marginal income, marginal utility. Often this modeling method is called marginal analysis.

Equilibrium models are used to study the relationship between various objects of the economy. The main assumption in such models is that any modeled system is in equilibrium and factors that can bring it out of equilibrium are not taken into account. Typically, the construction of economic models of this type is used to study different markets and the interaction of companies operating in the same market.

It is equilibrium models that are most applicable to private entrepreneurs and investors, since with their help they can obtain valuable information about the market in which they operate and the prospects for its development.

In addition to these varieties of models, they are also divided into positive and normative. In positive models, the main purpose of construction is to find the causes and consequences of an event or economic phenomenon. At the same time, these phenomena are not evaluated.

Normative models, on the contrary, allow assessing a phenomenon or event, but do not allow establishing the causes and consequences of this phenomenon. Both types of modeling are interconnected and are used simultaneously for the most accurate modeling of economic processes.

Do you use economic models in your activities?

Andrey Malakhov, professional investor, financial consultant

Economic modeling is an extremely important component of many processes in this scientific field, which allows you to analyze, predict and influence certain processes or phenomena occurring in the course of economic movement. In this article, this topic will be discussed in as much detail as possible.

Definition

Mathematical modeling of socio-economic processes is a repetition (in other words, a recreation) of certain objects or phenomena directly related to the economy, on a reduced scale (that is, in the conditions created and maintained by the one who builds this model, controlled by artificially). Most often, this method of reproducing, analyzing and solving any emerging economic problems is used precisely with the help of mathematical techniques, formulas, dependencies, etc.

General modeling consists in analyzing the economic system as a whole and its individual processes and phenomena in particular, predicting any events, possible thanks to calculations derived mathematically, as well as drawing up and maintaining various plans for managing and influencing the economy, its components and derivatives tasks. More details about these functions will be written under the corresponding headings of the article.

Typically, the end product of economic modeling (i.e. the model itself) has a fundamental backing consisting of real information derived from statistical and empirical studies. Based on the model obtained, it is possible to predict certain processes or phenomena with high accuracy, as well as to evaluate any factors related to economic theory.

Economic theory

An important feature of any model is the fact that it can be used to identify the main properties of the object or phenomenon studied in the process of modeling, which means that specific patterns inherent in this object or phenomenon can also be determined. For example, if a certain product had a decline in its price, with a high degree of probability, an economist can determine that representatives of any of the categories of citizens corresponding to consumers of this product will purchase it much more often in the future. This, in turn, is a clear reflection of the essence of the law of demand.

The real person in economic theory is replaced by his "improved", more rational copy - economic entity who is guided solely by reason, to the exclusion of any feeling, and makes every decision based on the conclusions of carefully verified reasoning and comparisons, the elements of which are benefits, losses, utility and other concepts involved in this process. Such subjects get to their intended goals with the least cost or with the greatest results, if they must act within certain restrictions.

The goal of the manufacturer in this system is to achieve the maximum possible profit in his case or some other indicators necessary for success. The consumer, on the other hand, must find the manufacturer or the product that will provide maximum utility and best meet consumer needs.

Complex processes from the field of economics are most often simplified through the use of such a method as partial analysis, the essence of which is to accept the majority of factors affecting the object of study as unchanged and constant, while those factors whose influence on the object of study needs to be determined can change. The result derived from a partial analysis becomes the first step in the implementation of a more complex, general analysis, in which absolutely all factors are taken into account during the study. Economic analysis in modeling methods also plays a very important role.

Model Requirements

In mathematical modeling of economic processes, it is extremely important that the model results meet a certain list of requirements, which looks like this:

• Content.
• The realism of all results, as well as specially made errors.
• Possibility for further forecasting.

• Access to all necessary information.
• Possibility to check the received model.

And also some others.

Scholars-economists did not agree on one common conclusion as to which criteria from this list are the most important. Someone relies on the possibility of forecasting, someone - on the permissible realistic amount of errors (for example, to find an explanation for economic events that have already taken place). The majority, however, recognizes that economic and mathematical modeling is designed to solve specific applied problems, and if the model fulfills them, it does not matter if it meets other, less important than the main criteria.

Stages of creating a model

Any theoretical model goes through similar stages, and economic modeling models are no exception. These stages, in chronological order, are as follows:

1. Selection of variables necessary for further work and successful compilation of the model.
2. Determination of permissible errors, the use of which facilitates the structure of the model and research activities based on it.
3. Development of one, and in some cases several hypotheses explaining interrelated and mutually exclusive processes and factors.
4. Conclusion on the basis of the conducted studies of specific findings.

Classes of economic models

The basics of economic modeling can be conditionally divided into two large classes, each of which is necessary for detailed consideration. These classes represent ideal and material modeling.

Material modeling (otherwise called physical or subject) is that modeling, during which an object that exists in reality is compared with its copy in a reduced or enlarged version. Such economic modeling allows the transfer of properties from the prototype of the model to its object according to the principle of similarity (as a rule, all this happens in the laboratory). An example can be any layouts, physical models, etc.

Ideal modeling is based not on the physical analogy of the prototype of the model with the model itself, but on an analogy carried out at the mental level in the ideal form, that is, without any errors. It is most often used in the present studies in terms of economic phenomena, since natural experiments always limit the possibilities of the scientists conducting them, while ideal models can be built at much lower costs.

Types of ideal modeling

Ideal modeling, in turn, is also divided into several subspecies: intuitive, sign and imitation. Since the latter is a synthesis of the first two, we will consider them in more detail:

• Intuitive modeling is the basis for modeling socio-economic processes, which is based on the thoughts of the one who builds it. In other words, this is a figurative model that is applicable where the cognitive knowledge base is not extensive enough or is at the stage of its initial development.

An example of what can be studied through intuitive modeling is a science such as physics - despite the colossal theoretical base of this science and the concretization of knowledge and theories about it and its derivatives, there are many areas in it that a person cannot look into without using one's own imagination, which, coupled with objective knowledge of reality, can push the researcher to any conclusion. If we talk about the economy, then for a very long period of time, intuitive modeling was, in principle, the one and only available option for conducting analytical work with accompanying calculations as part of the study by scientists of processes related directly to the economy and the laws and rules of its formation, movement and development. Any person making any decision in the field of economics, one way or another, is based on a model built earlier by himself or by another, more competent person, in relation to the specific situation that he needs to solve.

However, in the field of serious economic transactions, the use of this method, which involves reliance on personal experience of a person, as a rule, leads to errors, because the subject of the economy may not be objective enough, or at least not as objective as the subject making certain decisions on the basis of sign modeling. Also, intuitive models fundamentally prevented the economy as a science from developing unhindered in the course of its historical growth, for the simple reason that different researchers-economists can perceive the same model of this type in completely different ways, and hence the conclusions they draw on it. basis will be different.

• Sign modeling is the basis of socio-economic modeling, which implies the use of models based on the exact sciences, and in particular, mathematics.

It was the mathematical approach that allowed the economy to create a base of specific methods and methods for constructing models as close as possible to the present state of affairs, and also taught economists how to use it to draw correct conclusions from these methods. However, the prevalence of iconic models in the work of professionals, including in the modeling of socio-economic systems, does not in the least detract from the usefulness and significance of their intuitive “colleagues”, who are no less important in their specific areas.

Groups of elements in models

Any model of the economic process or phenomenon that is being studied by people involved in this on a professional basis, as well as by any enthusiasts and amateurs interested in this science and solving its applied problems, contains elements that, in turn, are divided into two groups according to the degree fame of their parameters.

1. If by the time the economic model is built, all its parameters and any mathematical calculations and dependencies are already known, then these parameters are called exogenous variables. A group of these elements is formed after a thorough observation of the object of study and study by scientists, as a result of which they put forward a number of specific hypotheses about its properties and other indicators that can be considered in the model of this object.
2. If by the time the economic model is built, all its parameters and any mathematical calculations and dependencies are not yet known, then these parameters are called endogenous variables. This group is already based on the analytical work carried out on a specific model in order to solve related issues.

If exogenous variables are changed in any way, having influenced them in one way or another, then it will be possible to detect certain properties that are inherent in endogenous variables, which, in fact, are the direct object of economic research.

Types of economic models

There are two types of simulation products covered in this article. economic activity. The type to which a particular model belongs is determined by the essence of the object of study, in which modeling was involved as a way to solve the problem. According to economic modeling methods, these two types look like this:

1. Optimization. Models based on this type are responsible for the actual description of the motives in the behavior of certain economic agents (this term refers to the subject of the economy and relations within this scientific and social industry, which is directly involved in the processes of production and further distribution wealth) that achieve their goals within the framework of certain conditions facing them and constraining factors.
2. Equilibrium. Models of this type present to the specialist who built them the final result of the complex mutual action and a list of links between economic entities, after which conditions are developed in which all their economic activities will be compatible and will not interfere with each other.

It should be clarified here that an economic entity is an economic entity engaged in the production or sale of any material values. This can be either a citizen who independently carries out work activities in the field of individual entrepreneurship, or an organization or enterprise, various funds, stock exchanges, associations, banks, etc.

There is also an important term that sounds like economic equilibrium. This term refers to the state of the economic environment in which not a single subject economic relations not interested in changing or modeling anything in it economic development. This should not be regarded as if all participants in economic relations are completely satisfied with their economic results, just in this state, none of them is able to increase their level of material well-being by influencing the volume of purchases or sales of certain goods or the structure of their distribution under a certain according to the prevailing system of prices for them. The point of this equilibrium is located at the intersection of two curves, one of which is responsible for the demand indicator, and the other for supply.

Types of Analysis in Simulation

Socio-economic modeling methods involve the use of two types of analysis. Let us analyze them for the sake of completeness of the discussed picture in more detail:

• A positive analysis is one that deals with the establishment of true chains, consisting of the causes of any economic process or phenomenon, as well as its consequences, without going into the assessment following these indicative statements.

This analysis can provide answers to such questions as “What?”, “Why?”, “What will happen if?..” in the connotation of economic reasoning and the study of problematic issues and the situation in this area of ​​scientific knowledge. The standard scheme of cause and effect (for example: “commit a crime - you will be punished”, “slept the alarm clock - you will be late for work”, etc.) is the most average and representative example of a statement that can lie at the root of a positive analysis of the basis of economic modeling.

• Normative analysis is an analysis that contains, among other things, a certain recommendatory array, presenting the analyst with an assessment of the usefulness or, in other words, the desirability of any consequences arising from an economic process or phenomenon.

This analysis aims to answer questions like: "What needs to be done in order to?.." intentions to accomplish on the part of the subject of economic relations who used this analytical method.

According to the basics of economic modeling, positive and normative analyzes are closely and strongly interconnected, since the statements arising from normative calculations have the most direct direct influence on the subject of analysis carried out using a positive methodology, as well as on the choice of this subject. The initial results of a positive analysis, however, can greatly facilitate the analyst's desired achievement of those intended goals that can be achieved in the course of this economic study. This is an important feature of the economic method of mathematical modeling.

Let's take an example. Let's take one specific statement, which sounds like this: scientists from all over the world have called it necessary to reduce the phenomenon of inflation in the economy. This is a typical example of a normative statement, especially considering that the goal it stands for can be achieved through various means and methods, which may include:

• Increase tax rates to reduce acute financial deficit within the budget of a certain state in which this situation is being considered.
• Reducing all unnecessary or least necessary items of government spending to maintain the economy in the country for any material values.
• Freeze all currently available prices indicating the cost of the main economic types raw materials or other objects of paramount market importance.
• Restriction or other influence of a similar nature on the dollar or euro exchange rate in its correlative relation to the Russian ruble.

And so on. For choice the best option of all the methods presented, it is precisely the positive analysis that is responsible, because in this case each of them will necessarily be subject to passing through the chain of causes and effects, which will make it possible to find out what each of these positions can lead to in practice. “If we increase tax rates, then...”, “Freezing all prices for raw materials will lead to the fact that...” - this is how it will look in practice after “sifting” a certain problem through two sieves of different, but working in tandem, methods of conducting analysis. Modeling of economic processes is an extremely multifaceted thing.

Thus, economic theory in no way deprives the subject of economic relations of any choice and does not limit him in his freedom of action regarding the performance of any economic actions, but, on the contrary, gives impetus to making this choice in a situation of greater human awareness and at least he is aware of the full responsibility that he may incur if his actions or decisions turn out to be wrong, or, on the contrary, improve the situation on the market or in a certain segment of it.

Levels of economic processes

Any economic system (that is, a cumulative list of all processes in the field of the economy that take place in a particular country or all over the world on the basis of relations that have developed in a certain way between the participants in economic interaction, their property and the mechanism for the functioning of economic apparatuses and divisions) contains two levels of economic processes.

• Production and technological level - it describes the capabilities of each of the studied systems of the economy in terms of the implementation of production activities.

When building a model based on mathematical data and related to these very possibilities for the production of a certain system, it (the system) is usually divided into several separate, independent units that carry out production; these units are called elementary. Then each of these elementary units is analyzed and the specialist who is directly involved in the construction of this model describes their capabilities in terms of production and the possibilities for the movement of resources and final material products among themselves (through trade relations). The first possibilities should be presented in the form of various production functions, and the second - with the help of the so-called balance mathematical relations.

• Socio-economic level - it describes by means of what actions the possibilities for production arising from the production-technological level come to their realization.

In this case of mathematical modeling of socio-economic processes, certain variable values ​​\u200b\u200bmust be found that directly determine the general development of the economic process as a whole or in a particular case; the production possibilities of each of the systems set such constraints, within which one can find a large number of solutions to various economic problems. These variables are called controls or, in other words, control (influencing the studied factors) influences. The mechanism according to which the choice between different administrations will be made must be determined precisely at the socio-economic level of the processes taking place in the economy.

Thus, the creation of models of these two procedural levels is directly necessary if the economist needs to describe how the economic system itself functions. Modeling the socio-economic level, as a rule, takes place with much greater labor costs, because it is a rather complex and time-consuming process.

In the basics of economic modeling, however, there is a fairly extensive list of problematic phenomena that do not necessarily have to be described by modeling the second considered level of economic processes. These phenomena are called normative, that is, they are precisely those controls that, in the course of further development of the model, lead the researcher to any positive results. The formulation of criteria, that is, direct descriptive definitions of what an economist can accept as a positive result, lies on the conscience of the specialist himself at the same stage of work.

Outcome

Summing up the results of the article, it can be noted that all products of mathematical modeling of economic processes, one way or another, can be conditionally divided into two broad classes. Here's what they look like:

1. The first class includes those models, the construction of which is due to the achievement of the goal of implementing the process of cognition of systems related to the economy (whether they are real systems or those that are entirely based on any hypothesis), their properties and other important factors.
2. The second class includes those models whose individual technical parameters may be subject to exploratory evaluation based on data from real, already conducted economic experiments.

Representatives of models from both of these classes can be useful when it is necessary to make any economic forecasts or when an economic problem situation needs someone to find a solution to it.

The second class is subdivided into three ordinal subclasses at a level below:

1. Models of the organization (company) are used as a foundation for making any economic decisions at the level manufacturing enterprises.
2. Models National economy are used as a basis for making any economic decisions at the level central authority responsible for the planning of economic production.
3. Economic models in a decentralized state are inherent in economic modeling methods that implement the possibility of forecasting or managing economic processes and phenomena.

The methodological problem most often encountered by specialists when trying to build any kind of economic model is the problem of which mathematical equations are suitable in this case for describing the model itself. There are only two options: these can be differential equations, or there can be so-called finite-difference equations.

Thus, economic modeling is a complex multi-stage process that requires careful preparation on the part of special specialists responsible for the data. economic methods solving or forecasting current problem situations in a given scientific field. This article discussed the most basic key points that need to be clarified for a complete understanding of the methodological process of socio-economic modeling, as well as some other points that clarify this issue. We hope that you have found in this work all the answers that you were interested in and now you will be able to put into practice solutions to any economic problems or simply be aware of this difficult topic. Having studied the methods of modeling economic processes, you can begin to master more serious and complex topics.

Give examples of rational and irrational human behavior.

Local authorities allocated money for the construction of a children's leisure center in the area. What could be the opportunity cost of a children's center?

Everyone knows that football is much less necessary for people than steel or food. However, professional football players are paid much more than farmers or steelworkers. Why?

TM5

Answer the questions:

Why does the development of economic models involve a set of assumptions that simplify the economy?

What are economic models?

What is economic data and economic variables?

What is dimension? How is instantaneous dimension different from interval dimension?

What is the difference between flows and stocks (funds) in the economy?

What is the difference between absolute and relative indicators in the economy?

What is the difference between nominal and real values ​​in the economy?

What are indexes? What is the index method used for?

What is a graph? What is a graph used for in economic analysis?

Practical module 1.

Read the text, answer the questions to it.

"On the division of labor".

"The greatest progress in the development production force labor and a significant share of the art, skill and ingenuity with which he

directed and applied, were, apparently, the result of the division of labor ... For an example, let's take ... the production of pins.

A worker who is not trained in this production (the division of labor has made the latter a special profession) and who does not know how to handle

machines used in it (the impetus for the invention of the latter was probably also given by this division of labor), hardly

perhaps, with all his efforts, he can make one pin a day and, in any case, he will not make twenty pins. But at that

organization that this production now has, it itself as a whole not only represents a special profession, but also

It is subdivided into a number of specialties, each of which, in turn, is a separate special occupation. One

the worker pulls the wire, the other straightens, the third cuts, the fourth sharpens the end, the fifth grinds one end for

head mounting; the manufacture of the head itself requires two or three independent operations ... Thus, a complex

the labor of making pins is divided into about eighteen independent operations... I happened to see...

a manufactory of this kind, where only ten workers were employed, and where, consequently, some of them worked two and

three different operations... These ten men produced over 48,000 pins a day.