Recently, there has been an outflow of workers from state-owned enterprises to non-state sectors of the economy.

The sectoral structure of the employed is one of the most important characteristics of the use of labor resources. In the most general form, it gives an idea of ​​the nature of the division of labor in society, the specific types of activities of workers, the organization of work, its effectiveness, conditions and content (Table 14).

Table 14

Distribution of the employed population of Russia by industry in 1996, %

The formation of market relations presupposes fundamental changes in the sectoral structure of employment of the population. The most significant changes must undergo the proportions of the distribution of workers between material production and non-production spheres; material and material sectors (industry, construction, agriculture) and production infrastructure (transport, communications, logistics, sales, procurement, information services, wholesale trade); sectors of the service sector for the population of material production - retail trade and public catering and material and material industries; between civilian and military sectors; in general between the first and second divisions of social production.

The change in the proportions of distribution of workers between material and non-material production is mainly determined by the type of economic development. It is known that the extensive type of reproduction leads to an increase in jobs, primarily in material production, hence to an increase in the number of people employed in this sector of the economy. The intensive type of reproduction requires a sharp increase in the quality of workers; means and production technology. Increasing labor efficiency and intensive management methods help reduce the labor demand of material production and increase the share of the employed population in the non-productive sphere, which makes it possible to more fully satisfy the social, cultural, everyday and other needs of the population.

The current structure of employment was the result of a long stage of extensive development of the economy with a stable priority of technical aspects of production, conservatism of economic relations and cannot adequately meet the demands of optimal economic development. In order to strengthen the social orientation of the economy and the efficiency of social production, the ratio of the number of employees between the material and non-productive spheres, it is necessary to strive for a 1:1 proportion. This means that with small increases in the number of workers in the national economy, it is necessary to significantly reduce the number of people employed in material production, correspondingly increasing the number of workers in non-production sectors through the transition to an intensive type of reproduction and the efficient use of labor.

In the future, the development of the non-production sector involves an increase in the number of workers in all sectors, since the demand for all types of services is not satisfied in quantitative and qualitative terms. However, new types of services related to changes in economic relations - financing, lending, social insurance, etc. should receive priority development.

Thus, the size of the employed population in social production, in which the bulk of labor resources is concentrated, depends more than ever on the reasonable proportions of the distribution of the employed population between material production and the non-production sphere. The reduction in the number of workers in material production is intensifying with the development of a market economy, which, due to high competition, involves more productive and intensive labor and the use of advanced progressive technologies. In addition, there will be a significant regrouping of the labor force within material production itself. In the future, the dynamics of the number of employees is associated with the development of industrial infrastructure sectors, as well as retail trade and public catering. The implementation of the planned dynamics of the number of people employed in the material sphere will make it possible to form a progressive structure that reflects the unity of social and economic goals of social development.

An essential characteristic of the labor market is the gender and age structure of employment.

When analyzing the age composition of the labor force, as a rule, workers of working age and those beyond working age are distinguished. Studying the composition of the workforce can be approached in different ways. For example, A. Revenko and N. Ivashkina propose the following method. They divide the working-age population into 4 larger groups:

16-24 years - at this age the spiritual and cultural formation of people occurs, their needs are formed and a certain level of qualification is achieved;

25-49 years old - mature workers with high level ability to work, a certain level of education and a determined professional orientation of work activity;

Men aged 55-59 years: women 50-54 years old. They experience a decline in labor activity and may change the type of activity;

Age older than working age - work activity depends on health status, level of education and qualifications, as well as pension conditions.

The age of labor activity of the population basically coincides with the functional boundaries of working age. In different countries, the age limits of the labor force are different, since they are established under a certain influence of the level of development of production, the social system, the achieved material well-being, the existing social security and education systems. In our country, according to current legislation, the age of 16 years is set as the lower limit of labor activity, and the upper limit of working age is 55 years for women and 60 years for men. In the future, it is planned to raise the upper limit of working age.

The population of retirement age plays an important role in shaping the labor market. Pensioners make up 20% of the country's population. In the labor market for pensioners, employment problems are closely related to the direction social policy. To this day, age pensioners in Russia continue to remain one of the most disadvantaged groups of the population in the labor sphere. They are limited in their choice of jobs and activities. In addition, the restructuring of the work of many enterprises and organizations occurs mainly due to the dismissal and reduction of persons who have passed or are close to working age; the degree to which they retain their ability to work, professional activity, and qualifications is not taken into account. Due to the insufficient level of pension provision, pensioners are forced to accept any paid work. The decline in living standards of the population and the low level of pensions increase their need for paid work. The continuing decline in people's living standards stimulates the supply of labor to pensioners and citizens in particular need of support, and the lack of effective measures for their social protection increases pressure on the labor market.

In the current conditions, with continued tension in the labor market, a high level of pensions can ensure a timely and painless exit of the aging workforce from social production. Thus, an adequate level of pension provision will help eliminate, firstly, the excessive need on the part of pensioners for paid work and, secondly, the negative social processes associated with the release of part of the labor force.

One of the most important employment problems, which has a demographic aspect, is the problem of the duration of the working period. It is the most important indicator of the capacity of the labor force and significantly affects many aspects of the reproduction of the labor force. The time of joint labor of different generations of the population depends on its duration. The duration of work also affects the ratio between those working in the national economy and those not working.

The methodology for determining the average period of labor activity is based on taking into account the influence of the following factors: the average period of maintaining useful working capacity; the legally established working age in the country; employment level of the working-age population. The initial value of the calculation is taken as the average length of working age, which is 44 years for men and 39 years for women.

But the average duration of work is also influenced by the following factors, namely: the study of part of the population in day hospitals; early retirement of some categories of the population; disabled people of groups I and II who cannot work; people employed in the household; unemployed; birth rate and mortality rate in working age. Social factors play an important role in the formation of labor resources.

The economic activity of the population is also affected by the ratio of men and women, since the level of employment social work In women, as a rule, it is lower than in men. Changes in the population structure by gender are influenced by a whole range of demographic, medical-biological and socio-economic factors.

Women are actively involved in the implementation of economic reform, the development of democratization processes, and the renewal of the spiritual and moral sphere. They work in almost all sectors and are intensively mastering many professions previously inaccessible to them.

Currently, the structure of women's employment is dominated by material production sectors. Up to 81% of women are employed in such industries as light industry, mechanical engineering, and chemicals. The number of women employed in trade, catering, and sales is increasing. They dominate in areas such as healthcare and education. The scale of women’s involvement in the workforce is such that if the incredible happened and they left their jobs together, especially in industries in which they dominate, this would lead to chaos in the economy, and in the service sector, medicine, and public education - to destruction. The number of women employed primarily in manual labor is decreasing every year.

At the same time, in the field of mental work, the share of people with higher education among women is lower than among men. The difference in the level of education of women and men - managers at all levels of management, accountants, economists, designers and craftsmen - is especially great. However, for the same types of occupations in the sphere of mental work, the proportion of people with incomplete higher and secondary specialized education among women is significantly higher than among men. At the same time, in the field of physical labor in many widespread professions, the educational level of women and men differs slightly. Men have a clear advantage only in the group of people who graduated from vocational schools, which naturally affects their predominance among highly skilled workers.

Women with education - general secondary, incomplete secondary and below incomplete secondary - work mainly in the sectors of material production, most of them have blue-collar professions or are employed in low-skilled production service jobs. Their situation in the labor market begins to sharply worsen due to a further decline in production and non-payments. The most unfavorable situation is developing in industry, especially in a number of branches of mechanical engineering and metallurgy, chemical and light industry. In the event of a massive release of labor from these industries, the labor market will continue to be replenished with women with a high level of education, including those who have a secondary general education and a working profession.

As a result of the development of market reforms, significant changes have occurred in the labor market, which is gradually losing its traditional stability. The female workforce, which requires additional expenses for social purposes, often becomes unprofitable for employers, which in a market economy increases the risk of deterioration in her working conditions and threatens her with dismissal to a greater extent than men. The greatest reduction of women occurs in state-owned enterprises, mainly in industry. The analysis made it possible to conclude that women, for objective and subjective reasons, find themselves in a more difficult position in market conditions. The category of objective factors includes the lag of women from men in the level of professional training and qualifications: the predominance of women specialists in “ordinary” professions, in which the baggage of student knowledge and practical skills acquired in the process of work is quite enough for the entire working life; finally, the protectionist policy of the state, as a result of which many family benefits are actually assigned to women, leads to the fact that the female workforce becomes less profitable for the enterprise.

Among the subjective factors, the most significant is that women are psychologically unprepared to compete for jobs, since they are accustomed to security in the world of work, even if it is not related to professional qualities. It is no coincidence that representatives of mass professions, predominantly performing skilled mental work, have become “superfluous” in the labor market, primarily, various profiles of technological engineers, economists, as well as technicians, programmers, among whom women predominate.

A particular difficulty in the situation of the current unemployed, about half of whom are certified specialists, is caused by the fact that in the structure of vacant jobs the proportion is inverse: two-thirds of the vacancies are intended for workers primarily in manual labor. It is almost impossible to find jobs for unemployed women with secondary specialized and higher education in these conditions, so they are assigned unemployment benefits. The situation on the labor market is unlikely to change in the near future. And if we take into account the upcoming abolition of various types of management structures, then there is every reason to predict an increase in the scale of unemployment, including “intellectual women’s.”

Research into the employment and employment sector of the Central Scientific Research Institute has established that the most favorable employment conditions from a demographic point of view are cities in which the share of women among the employed ranges from 49-53%. The most negative consequences may arise in cities where the proportion of women among employed people of working age is less than 47% and above 55%.

When analyzing the processes of formation of labor resources, not so much quantitative characteristics as qualitative indicators of labor potential are of great importance. The most general indicator of the quality of labor resources is the educational level.

To assess the educational level of the population and trends in its change, which have a significant impact on the formation of labor resources, the level of education for individual age groups is important. It can be noted that a particular increase in the level of education occurred among the employed population under the age of 30.

An indicator of the qualitative structure of labor resources, which has a great influence on the choice of sphere of employment, is the ratio of the level of education of women and men. In the field of mental work, for all major types of activity, regardless of whether women predominate or not, the proportion of persons with higher education among employed women is lower than among employed men. The difference in the level of education of women and men - managers at all levels of management, accountants, and engineers - is especially large. However, for the same types of occupations in the sphere of mental work, the proportion of people with incomplete higher and secondary specialized education among employed women is significantly higher than among employed men.

An important indicator of changes in the qualitative structure of the population is the elimination of significant differences in the level of education of the urban and rural population. Due to the fact that the dynamics of labor demand are already noticeably different across sectors of the national economy and industrial sectors, it is of interest to assess the educational level of those employed in the national economy by sector.

Those employed with education: secondary general, incomplete secondary and below incomplete secondary, work mainly in sectors of material production, mostly have blue-collar professions or are employed in low-skilled work servicing production. Their situation in the labor market begins to sharply worsen due to a further decline in production and non-payments.

The decrease in the labor force also occurs due to the diversion of a large group of the population (especially young people) to study away from production. Training in educational institutions improves the quality of labor resources. With the expansion of production's need for highly educated and highly skilled workers, the value of education also increases among the population itself.

But the current structure of demand in the labor market presupposes the reproduction of personnel primarily in the mass dominant professions. However, there are serious contradictions here between the short-term needs of the labor market and long-term guidelines, since structural changes in the future will lead to a reduction in workers of this particular profile. Therefore, it is very important to organize the training and retraining of specialists in accordance with not only short-term, but also long-term demand trends.

In the structure of the population employed in public and individual production, an intensive process of updating the workforce with qualified personnel is taking place. This process is intensifying not only as a result of the increasing influx of young people graduating from vocational educational institutions, but also due to the departure of workers with a low level of education from the sphere of social production.

As a result, the ratio between groups of workers in the simplest and most complex jobs changes significantly. But the change in the average wage category of workers occurs unevenly in individual industries. Thus, if in mechanical engineering and the electric power industry there was a significant increase in tariff categories, which led to an increase in the average tariff category, then in the chemical industry, light and food industries, higher growth rates of workers in the lower tariff categories led to a decrease in the average tariff category.

An important macroeconomic proportion is the redistribution of labor between territories.

Territorial redistribution of labor resources at the level of the national economy is a moment of intensive type of reproduction of labor resources, since it does not lead to an increase in their total number, but only causes territorial and sectoral regroupings of workers. The leading role in this process is played by the location of production, which determines the nature of the settlement of citizens and their most important component - the working population. Improving the territorial distribution of productive forces in most cases also involves the movement of labor.

Important factors that have a significant impact on population movements are regional differences in living standards. Almost all authors studying migration share the opinion that migration processes are based on economic reasons and, in particular, the living conditions of the population. Population migration takes different directions: from rural areas to cities, from cities to villages, from cities to cities, from villages to villages. In addition, intra-regional migration can also be distinguished.

When assessing the migration of the rural population to cities, it should be borne in mind that the Russian economy has been developing for a long time mainly due to extensive factors of economic growth, including due to an increase in the number of employees. This was especially typical for the initial period of industrialization of the country. At that time, the countryside had large labor reserves. Under these conditions, migration of the rural population has become the most important source of labor supply for the continuously growing industrial sectors of the Russian national economy.

If we evaluate the migration of the rural population of the post-war period and recent decades, it had negative aspects: the migration of the rural population to cities in most cases took place from those areas that did not have labor reserves, and its outflow was not compensated by the growth in the technical equipment of agriculture and, therefore, , productivity growth. Moreover, the most qualified personnel left the village. Consequently, from a macroeconomic point of view, such migration is unjustified, since it leads to an absolute decrease in numbers, a decrease in the number of marriages and a drop in the birth rate, and worsens the age-sex structure. Optimization of territorial proportions in the distribution of the population and labor resources requires the development of industrial sectors of the economy in rural areas - processing of agricultural products, production of light industrial products, building materials, development of the public service sector, which, accordingly, will require significant capital investments, but will contribute to the opening of new jobs.

In contrast to the processes of natural population movement, migration has less inertia and depends most on public policy in the field of development and deployment of productive forces. Migration plays a huge role in the development of productive forces, in the redistribution of population and labor resources, and ensuring the necessary correspondence between the need and availability of labor in different regions of the country. Migration depends on many subjective and objective factors.

An analysis of the migration of the rural population shows that it occurs in two stages. First, the population moves to small cities, and then to larger ones. Usually, people from rural areas first go to nearby cities, where they are sufficiently aware of the living and working conditions. Unable to gain a foothold there, rural residents either return back or, as is more often the case, move to a larger city.

Migration contributes to a better placement of labor resources and leads to personnel renewal. At the same time, with insufficient organization of state regulation of migration processes, this leads to disproportion in the gender and age composition of the population and excessive growth of the largest cities at the expense of the rural population, especially young people. Migration also affects changes in the educational level of the population.

In recent years, emigration has transformed from traditional ethnic to economic. The working-age population aged 20-24 and 30-49 began to move abroad most actively. This age marks the peak of mature creativity, which is significantly higher than the corresponding indicator in the general population. In the social and professional structure of those leaving, the proportion of highly qualified specialists is significant.

In the formation of labor resources, especially the urban population, commuting plays a role. Pendulum migration is considered to be the process of territorial movement of the population, which has a stable, permanent nature and is not associated with a change of place of residence. The reason for the pendulum migration of the population is the territorial division of labor, namely one of its types - the division of functions between the population. The intensity of pendulum migration depends on the degree of this division of labor. Pendulum migration is typical for all regions of the republic, but its intensity varies.

In general, differences in migration levels can be explained in terms of the breadth and ramifications of connections between cities and rural areas and a number of other features. The bulk of commuting migrants are employed in industry and construction and are settled 10-15 km from the city. This settlement radius depends on the scale of the city; the larger the city, the larger it is. The main reasons for commuting are the lack of work in the profession and poor working conditions, as well as the opportunity to have a year-round permanent job, which is not always possible to find in rural areas.

Currently, the role of migration in regulating employment is increasing, so rationalization of migration processes is necessary. The more unemployed people become employed, the more migrants there will be in the region; The higher the possibility of obtaining housing, the more attractive the locality will be.

The most important characteristic of the labor market is the presence of unemployment. Unemployment is a socio-economic phenomenon in which some workers cannot find work and become relatively redundant.

In Russia, over the past four years, the number of employed people has decreased by 9%. In 1997, 6.4 million people did not have a job, but were actively looking for it, 31% of them were officially registered with the employment service as unemployed, and the duration of unemployment was growing.

According to experts, in the next two years the highest percentage of unemployment will be among the following categories: scientists at industry research institutes - 50%; weavers - 50%; seamstresses - 40-50%; tanners, shoemakers - 40-50%; workers of machine-building factories - 30%; military personnel - 20%; specialists in the field of processing of agricultural products - 20%.

It will be easiest to find work for representatives of those professions that will be least affected by unemployment: employees of notary offices - less than 1%; tax officers - less than 1%; auditors, lawyers specializing in tax law - 1.5%; journalists - 1-2%; accountants certified for knowledge of international accounting rules - 2%; bank employees - 2-3%.

Involuntary unemployment sometimes takes hidden forms, with the number of employed workers exceeding what is objectively required to perform a certain amount of work. In these cases, people have to work part-time or part-time. Hidden unemployment reaches particular proportions in economies with deep distortions of the market mechanism.

In Russia, more than 4 million people work part-time or are on forced leave.

To better understand the causes of hidden unemployment, it is necessary to “go down” to the micro level and examine the processes within enterprises, which largely determine the strategy of their behavior.

Large factories with complex technological cycles cannot significantly reduce their workforce even with a sharp decline in production. The inflexibility of technologies used at Russian enterprises helps. The fact is that most of them were built for the release of a specific project. This is especially clearly seen in the example of the chemical industry. The need for each new product was satisfied through the construction of a new workshop or plant with rigid technology. Factories have virtually no spare capacity for flexible reorientation. Such an industrial structure, even for the production of 20% of production, requires the work of almost everyone employed at the enterprise.

In addition, the enterprises had a large number of workers who serviced housing and social infrastructure. Even in the textile industry, which does not have a strictly developed infrastructure like the military-industrial complex, more than 26% of profits were spent on maintaining social and cultural amenities and housing, according to expert estimates.

Focus on preserving the workforce is a key goal for many managers of state-owned and privatized enterprises. The work collectives themselves are also focused on retaining all workers, even at the cost of reducing wages for all employees.

The share of labor in total production costs has now fallen below 12%. This makes saving on labor pointless. The relative reduction in labor costs is accompanied by an increase specific gravity material costs due to rising prices for equipment, raw materials, and energy. But, as a rule, enterprises have not only overemployment, but also excess stocks of equipment, materials, excess premises, and free production capacity. A decline in production also makes such resources redundant. Renting or selling them makes it possible to pay wages and maintain employment. At the same time, fixed capital is consumed and chronic underinvestment occurs, which will have the saddest impact in the near future.

It is often cheaper for an employer to retain its employees, send some of them on unpaid leave or transfer them to shorter working hours, than to reduce the number of employees at the enterprise. By lowering the average wage, he can reduce the tax by more than the amount of wages paid to "unnecessary workers." Employment flexibilization helps to avoid layoffs and facilitates market adaptation of enterprises.

In 1992, faced with a lack of financing, a decline in production, non-payments by consumers, etc., Russian enterprises began to look for ways to adapt to tightening budget constraints. Many began to introduce part-time work or a week, unpaid leave, early retirement, etc. For the most part, workers are calm about forced vacations, and this has not yet caused serious social tension (people are either busy with their garden plots, either trade or household chores). Moreover, their total earnings often exceed those paid when working full time at the plant.

Another direction of employment flexibilization is associated with the spread of employment for a specific, predetermined period (fixed-term contracts). The first to encounter them were engineering and technical workers and the management staff of the enterprise. Soon this practice affected ordinary workers. After the agreed period, all employees will be automatically dismissed, and the director will receive the right and complete freedom in selecting those whom he would like to hire again. The virtual absence of trade unions at enterprises facilitates such a policy.

So, the decline in production did not lead to mass unemployment. The most common explanation for this phenomenon can be found in the persistence of soft budget constraints, which make it possible to artificially finance excess employment. With a tightening of monetary policy, enterprises will be forced to sharply increase the scale of layoffs, which will lead to a rapid increase in open unemployment.

The problem of unemployment, which emerged in connection with the transition to market relations, is not associated with technical progress or a crisis of overproduction, as happens cyclically in a market economy, but with factors caused by deep deformations of the transition period. The privatization of state-owned enterprises and the conversion of enterprises of the military-industrial complex, supported by an abnormal surge in migration processes, form the basis for structural, regional and other types of forced unemployment characteristic of our transforming economy.

The most important element of the state's socio-economic policy is employment policy, the goal of which is to increase the efficiency of labor markets so that, for any given level of aggregate demand, the unemployment rate is minimal. In other words, these policies should result in a workforce that is best suited to available jobs and thereby eliminate imbalances and bottlenecks in the labor market.

We can distinguish two main directions of state activity in the labor market, namely: social and economic. The first includes measures regulating the quantitative relationship between demand and supply of labor, restraining the growth of unemployment, aimed at studying the situation in the labor market, as well as the employment of certain categories of workers. The second includes a set of measures to influence the quality of labor resources, their proportions, advanced training and productive consumption. At the same time, it is necessary to emphasize the dynamism of state regulation in the labor market, when each stage of development of Russian society or the economic cycle corresponds to a specific economic policy.

In the general system of state regulation of the labor market, two main types of influence can be distinguished: direct and indirect. The direct impact is of a regulatory and corrective nature and consists of organizing public works, stimulating the creation of new jobs in the non-state sector, developing a system of industrial training and retraining, stimulating or, conversely, restraining the development of production in certain regions, regulating the length of the working day and week , months, international labor migration, organization of seasonal work.

Indirectly affecting the labor market, changing business conditions in the direction of stimulating or inhibiting economic processes, tax, monetary policies, government procurement, policies in the field of depreciation of fixed assets, stimulation of scientific research, experimental development, budget subsidies for a number of industries. If the direct impact mainly affects labor supply, then the indirect impact affects demand.

In order to regulate employment and unemployment, the state can use a whole range of methods, in particular, economic, administrative, ideological, legislative, and organizational. Economic methods mean a certain policy of achieving full employment through lending, subsidies, benefits and subsidies to employers, regulation of the level and specific rates of interest and income tax, government procurement, etc.

Administrative methods include: lowering the retirement age, establishing a certain length of the working week, paid leave, liberalizing or limiting immigration and emigration of the labor force, and regulating certain employment issues for certain categories of the population. Ideological methods are used to explain the policy of full employment, achieve an optimal combination of interests of employers and workers, stimulate the creation of so-called workers' funds at enterprises, involve workers in management processes at various levels, explain the objective need in a market economy to have a system of "social partnership" or individual its elements.

State legislative acts regulating the process of training and education, employment of representatives of certain groups of the population, aimed against discrimination against some of them, in particular youth and women, belong to the legislative methods of the state labor market. The essence of organizational methods is to reduce or eliminate various kinds of institutional barriers that impede territorial, sectoral, professional and qualification mobility of labor resources. To this end, employment and unemployment statistics must be improved, an automated system for studying and regulating the structure of labor supply and demand in local, regional and sectoral labor markets must be developed, the efficiency of employment services must be increased, and the vocational education system must adapt to the requirements of market relations.

Currently, there are various models for stimulating employment in developed countries based on the recognition of the close relationship between economic growth rates, employment and labor productivity.

The first model, which is sometimes called the American model, involves the creation of low-productivity jobs for a significant portion of able-bodied citizens who have, accordingly, low incomes. Formally, unemployment is decreasing, but a large class of “new poor” is emerging - the working poor.

The second model, characteristic mainly of the Scandinavian countries, focuses on providing employment for almost the entire workforce by creating jobs in the public sector with average satisfactory working conditions and pay. The disadvantage of such a policy is that it relies only on public funds, the limitation or depletion of which inevitably leads to a decline in production and a sharp reduction in jobs.

An example of an effective policy is Sweden, where employment is achieved through the active role of the state with a more passive role of trade unions, since unemployment cannot be dealt with by reducing wages, and with an increase in demand for labor, trade unions will not be able to ensure price stability by moderate demands for wage increases. According to the formulation of E. Ren, the main creator of the model, which in economic literature often called the “Rehn model,” the solution to the unemployment-inflation dilemma is: “... to apply a set of general tax and monetary restrictions that keep prices so low relative to wages that employers themselves effectively resist inflationary demands for higher wages. Then ensure full employment through social measures called labor market policies." It is the combination of general economic measures to maintain general demand slightly below the level that guarantees work for everyone, everywhere, and active labor market and investment policies aimed at supporting weaker groups, industries and regions that is the essence of the model.

Labor market policies, typical of the Swedish model, are part of the government's economic policy. Its main task is to quickly and effectively match labor supply and demand. During the period of continued economic recovery, the focus is on supporting economic development, improving services for job seekers and entrepreneurs, and returning to the “employment line” (i.e. reducing the share of unemployment benefits in the labor market administration budget). The emphasis is on increasing the efficiency of the labor market.

The purpose of some so-called “joint” measures is to combine new jobs and job seekers in a certain place and time, i.e. mainly the placement of labor. Other programs are aimed at stimulating labor supply, i.e. primarily to increase professional and geographical mobility. Finally, some measures are aimed at stimulating the demand for labor, both by providing subsidies to maintain or increase employment levels in companies, and through individually targeted measures such as public works or attempts to provide work for the elderly and disabled. In addition, unemployment benefits are paid. Thus, low unemployment in Sweden is the result of active labor market policies. About 1/3 of the gross product and 7% of the state budget are used for these purposes, of which about 1/3 goes for financial compensation for the unemployed. At the same time, the national government and authorities believe that only a small part of expenditures (no more than 10%) on labor market policies should be used as unemployment benefits.

Critics of Swedish labor market policies point to the fact that constantly 3-4% of the labor force is supported by measures such as training and retraining courses, employment subsidies, public works, protected work, etc. If we add open unemployment, then in Sweden 5-6% of the labor force is outside the regular labor market. In our view, such calculations ignore the important distinction between benefits for the unemployed and active measures to increase the chances of the unemployed getting new jobs, maintaining their qualifications and avoiding the state of passivity that easily sets in during long periods of unemployment.

The third model of employment policy, which is called European, is based on a reduction in the number of employed while increasing labor productivity and, accordingly, increasing the income of the working part of the population. Such a policy requires the creation of an expensive benefit system for the growing number of unemployed people.

Under the Anglo-Saxon model, enterprises, as a rule, are created on a joint-stock basis, with separate ownership and management rights, and the employees of the enterprise themselves, if they are not shareholders, have limited rights. The state in such a system performs very limited functions. In Germany, employees are not just a factor of production; they share social and corporate responsibility. The state here performs intermediary and coordinating functions aimed, in particular, at achieving cohesion and social justice, which are important from the point of view of increasing the efficiency of the market system. In this system plays an important role family capital with a limited role for the stock market.

Another model - the Japanese one - played a significant role in the development of Japanese post-war industry.

The following characteristic points can be highlighted here: the creation of trade unions directly at enterprises, in companies, and not at the industry level; lifelong employment system; determination of wage rates depending on length of service, age, family composition. Combined with a corporate approach to labor, these factors made it possible to achieve high competitiveness of Japanese products. The stability of personnel allows managers to pursue a long-term investment policy, successfully carry out innovative activities and, if necessary, retrain employees. Therefore, the organized workforce in Japan is characterized by mobility, flexibility, and versatility. All this made it possible to achieve the harmonization of industrial relations, which had a beneficial effect on the rapid growth of its industrial base.

In the middle of the current decade, the following new approaches emerged in employment policy in developed countries:

Increasing flexibility and compromise in employment. For example, during a period of deteriorating economic conditions, entrepreneurs do not fire workers, but transfer them to shorter working hours. At the same time, part of the wages (for time not worked) is paid to these employees by the state. This is practiced in some US states (California, Arizona, etc.);

Expanding the tools for regulating the labor market;

Strengthening the role of business in solving employment problems;

Measures are being taken to encourage and encourage the unemployed to more energetically search for a new job: reducing the maximum benefit amount (Denmark, Austria, Germany, Canada); extending the length of work required to receive benefits; immediate payment of benefits for the entire period of unemployment with the condition of starting a business;

Abolition in many countries of the monopoly of the state employment service on the employment of the unemployed;

Priority development was given to programs to improve the quality of the workforce and, consequently, its competitiveness in the market.

According to the Law of the Russian Federation “On Employment of the Population in the Russian Federation,” the essence of state policy in the field of promoting employment of the population is to promote the realization of the rights of citizens to full productive and freely chosen employment.

Employment policy for the period 1996-2000. is aimed at ensuring a rational structure of employment of the population, achieving a balance of the workforce and jobs, preventing mass unemployment, creating new and increasing the efficiency of existing jobs, developing human resources, improving training systems, retraining, retraining and advanced training of personnel, increasing the mobility of labor resources.

To solve these problems, the following measures are proposed: pursuing a balanced investment and tax policy that stimulates a more complete use of available jobs; development of small enterprises; direction of capital investments both in promisingly developing industries and in traditional employment sectors; encouraging foreign investment to create new jobs.

The experience of countries (Germany, France) shows that even large-scale financially supported programs may ultimately not give the expected effect if the development of the labor market according to its internal laws is ignored. Therefore, from the very beginning it is necessary to form a system of measures to increase employment that would be based on full assistance to market factors of economic development, in particular on stimulating entrepreneurial demand for labor. For example, to increase employment in a particular region, measures that stimulate the expansion of product sales and increase profitability are preferable to centralized production investments. In these conditions, the state should pay special attention to measures to use production potential, including: more complete use of vacancies; use of production reserves; increasing the shift rate of workers.

The concept of employment in the domestic labor market implies the introduction of flexible forms. But here the situation is somewhat different. If in foreign countries the use of flexible forms of employment helps to attract additional labor, in Russia such a policy is aimed at preserving existing jobs. In the context of a decline in production, enterprise administrations are forced to transfer workers to shorter working hours, a shorter working week, or even send them on administrative leave. One of the directions of state policy in the labor market is to promote the creation of additional jobs. For example, incentives are provided for employers who create new jobs. They are provided with financial assistance on preferential terms from available funds from the employment fund. The preferential right to receive it are those enterprises and organizations that create jobs for employing people who are especially in need of social protection, as well as persons with professions or specialties that are not in demand in the labor market. As a rule, assistance to employers is provided in the form of repayable financing. In some cases, such financing is possible without setting fees or interest.

It should be noted that the employer invests at least 51% of its own funds, including bank and other loans, in the job creation project. One of the mandatory conditions for providing financial assistance is the timely and full payment of insurance contributions to the employment fund over the past 12 months.

A more optimal form of social support for the unemployed is the creation of additional jobs in addition to the staffing table at the expense of the employment fund. First of all, they are intended for unemployed women with young children, graduates of educational institutions, and people of pre-retirement age. Citizens employed in additional jobs enjoy a preferential right to occupy vacant positions.

Western economists are showing great interest in the problems of reforming the Russian economy. In particular, there is the so-called “Austrian direction”, which is based on the prospect of rising unemployment in Russia and the priority of regulating the labor market in order to prevent large scales of unemployment and possible social upheavals associated with it. Therefore, Austrian experts recommend priority financing of projects that ensure accelerated growth in the number of jobs, proportional public investment in production and non-production facilities.

In conditions of a general decline in production and in the temporary absence of sufficient funds to create new jobs, the state should pay special attention to the use of existing production potential, which implies a more complete use of vacancies; transfer (or sale) of unfinished facilities and capacities, redistribution of uninstalled equipment to create new jobs at existing and newly formed enterprises; increasing the work shift ratio.

Development, based on forecasts of socio-economic development, of a general scheme for the development of jobs.

Introduction of a system to stimulate the development of entrepreneurship, small and medium-sized businesses, primarily in regions with a critical situation on the labor market.

The development of entrepreneurial activity largely depends on the level of development of self-employment of the population, which in world economic practice is associated with small business. Small business occupies an important place in the economic and social life of developed countries. Thus, in the United States, small firms produce about 43% of the gross national product and half of the gross private sector product. Small businesses play an important role in solving employment problems. Almost half of all private sector employment is concentrated in small firms. In the 1980s, 80% of all new jobs were created by small firms.

Small enterprises can be created on the basis of various forms of ownership - private, joint-stock, state, and also the property of public organizations. In market conditions, small enterprises have a number of economic advantages. The development of a network of small enterprises will make it possible to intensify the structural restructuring of the economy, form a market based on competition, ensure quick return on costs, quickly respond to changes in consumer demand, provide freedom of choice and additional jobs, etc.

It should be noted that the issue of opening small enterprises requires a specific feasibility and social justification, taking into account regional characteristics, as well as based on market requirements, demand for products and services, natural, labor and intellectual resources available in the republic. For example, the natural resources of Chuvashia are oriented toward the creation of small enterprises for the production of building materials, brick factories, and enterprises for the production of glass and ceramics. In rural settlements, it is advisable to have small enterprises for processing agricultural products, including sugar production enterprises. In large cities (Cheboksary, Novocheboksarsk), where the intellectual potential of the republic is concentrated, along with enterprises producing consumer goods, small enterprises in the field of high technologies and knowledge-intensive industries should be developed.

Along with small businesses, which are legal entities whose activities are regulated by the state, individual (private) entrepreneurial activity has become somewhat widespread. A distinctive feature of private entrepreneurial activity is that it is carried out, as a rule, without registration of the right of a legal entity and without regulation by the state or with a lesser degree of regulation. Abroad, persons engaged in similar activities belong to the informal employment sector. It is informal in the sense that often the persons named are not registered and are not counted in official statistics. According to the International Labor Organization, about 300 million people are employed in the informal sector in developing countries alone.

The development of the individual sector in our country is explained by economic reasons. Firstly, the need to increase employment and more fully utilize labor resources; secondly, the need to achieve savings in capital investments, financial and material resources in social production; thirdly, the need to expand production and range of consumer goods; fourthly, the feasibility of switching personal savings of the population from the sphere of consumption to the sphere of production and services; fifthly, the need to raise incomes and the level of well-being of the population. Of course, one should not overestimate the importance of private (individual) activity, but it can play an important role in ensuring employment of the population when workers are released from state-owned enterprises.

Self-employed forms of employment are of particular importance in the agricultural sector of the economy. On peasant farms, agricultural yields are no higher than on public farms, and the level of mechanization of production processes is significantly lower. One of the reasons for this situation is the increased disparity in prices for agricultural products sold and industrial products produced for rural needs. Due to high prices and the lack of preferential loans, farmers are unable to access equipment, building materials, mineral fertilizers and other industrial products. There is a need to develop a package of organizational and economic measures to encourage self-employment of unemployed citizens. It should include the following types of assistance: consulting (provided by employment service specialists); organizational (registration, not licensing procedure for the creation of new enterprises by unemployed people or if the number of unemployed among the founders exceeds 50%); financial (exemption of such enterprises from all types of income and property taxation for 1-2 years; preferential loans (free subsidies, priority in renting premises, leasing of equipment); personnel training (opening special departments, courses in educational institutions, business schools).

Optimizing the scale of employment in the non-state sector of the economy, ensuring state control over compliance with labor legislation in this area.

Improving the mechanism for attracting foreign labor, ensuring the priority right of Russian citizens to occupy vacant positions, including through the establishment of a quota corresponding to the capabilities of the Russian and regional labor markets.

Development of special programs to stabilize employment in regions with a crisis situation in the labor market, mono-industrial cities, and regions of the Far North.

In modern conditions, regional policy is of great importance for the normal development of the labor market in Russia. The goals of state regulation should be: mitigating the social climate in society, providing the economy with trained personnel, promoting increased mobility of the population, etc. The state can facilitate the movement of capital and labor resources and take measures aimed at retaining them in certain places.

Two main points can be identified as positive in regional policy on the labor market: the “redistribution effect” and the “income growth effect.” The first leads to the redistribution of capital and labor between highly and underdeveloped regions of the country or republics under the influence of certain economic incentives. The second effect comes from an increase in aggregate consumer demand due to redistribution processes in the regions, through it - investment demand and, ultimately, the overall level of employment. Here we can even talk about the presence of a multiplier effect of regional policy on the labor market.

Regional policy programs, as integral elements, must respect the gradation of regions according to socio-economic indicators, such as the intensity and profile of industrial development, the level of employment and the scale of unemployment. Such a division is necessary within Russia and its constituent entities. The resolution mechanism may include the following regulators: subsidies and preferential loans both for capital and housing construction, tax breaks, subsidies for employers to increase employment, preferential tariffs for heat and electricity, the deployment of a broad system of training and retraining of workers, multifaceted support for small and medium-sized businesses, planning and regulation of social development of backward regions , the creation here of state enterprises in industrial production and the service sector. In addition, it should be noted that there are measures of the opposite type, such as a system of fines, licenses and certificates aimed at limiting the expansion of production in oversaturated areas.

Federal executive authorities, together with executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and local self-government, will ensure:

Further development of the system of continuous education, including in-production support, expansion of self-training opportunities, support for advanced training of personnel at risk of dismissal;

Phased implementation of measures to mitigate the social consequences of long-term unemployment;

Expanding the structure and types of public works, the conditions for their organization, implementation and financing, taking into account the qualitative composition of the unemployed and the socio-economic needs of the regions;

Development of flexible forms of employment;

Reforming the system of assignment and payment of unemployment benefits, developing measures to promote active job search, participation in public works and professional retraining. When determining minimum size unemployment benefits to stop using the minimum wage as a standard;

Increasing the financial stability of the State Employment Fund of the Russian Federation;

Implementation of measures to strengthen social protection of workers working part-time (weekly) or on leave without pay due to a temporary shutdown of production;

Development of special programs aimed at expanding employment for certain social groups of the population - youth, women with young children, disabled people;

Implementation of social plans of enterprises carrying out mass layoffs of workers.

Sarycheva Tatyana Vladimirovna
Candidate economic sciences, assistant professor
Russia, Mari State University
[email protected]

annotation

A real reflection of all structural changes taking place in the country’s economy is the employment structure of the population, which responds to any changes in socio-economic development and allows one to judge whether a given economic system is in a crisis phase or whether it is accompanied by sustainable economic growth, accompanied by an increase in the number of busy. Therefore, in modern conditions, analysis of the employment structure is of scientific and practical interest. This article discusses methodological approaches to assessing structural changes in employment, based on an analysis of the mass of structural shifts, which made it possible to decompose the magnitude of structural shifts in each individual type of activity into two components: an internal shift caused by a change in the number of labor resources of a given type of activity with conditional constancy of the employed in other types of activities, and an external shift characterizing a change in the share of an activity in the total structure of the employed, caused by a change in the number of labor resources employed in other types of activities. As a general indicator of structural changes in employment, the author proposes to use the Ryabtsev index, the advantage of which is that its value is independent of the number of gradations of structures, which does not lead to an overestimation of structural changes, as well as the presence of a scale for assessing the significance of structural differences. Testing of the proposed methodology made it possible to identify the types of activities that make the maximum contribution to structural changes in both employment and the country’s economy as a whole.

Keywords

employment structure in Russia, types of economic activity, structural shifts

Funding Recommended link

Sarycheva Tatyana Vladimirovna

The structure of employment by type of economic activity in Russia and the dynamics of its changes// Regional economics and management: electronic scientific journal. ISSN 1999-2645. — . Article number: 4821. Date of publication: 2016-11-30. Access mode: https://site/article/4821/

Sarycheva Tat"jana Vladimirovna
PHD, assistant professor
Russian, Mari State University
[email protected]

Abstract

A real reflection of structural changes occurring in the economy, is the structure of employment, which responds to any changes in the socio-economic development and gives an indication of whether this economic system is in a crisis phase, or it is accompanied by sustained economic growth, accompanied by a growth in the number employed. Therefore, in the present conditions of the employment structure analysis is scientific and practical interest. This article describes the methodological approaches to the assessment of structural changes in employment, based on the analysis of the mass of a structural shift, which allowed to spread the amount of structural change in each activity into two components: an internal shift due to a change in this type of activity in the labor force with conditional constancy employed in other activities, and an external shift that characterizes the change in the share of total activity in the structure of employment due to the change in labor force population engaged in other activities. As a summary measure of structural changes in employment the author proposes to use the index Ryabtsev, the advantage of which is its value regardless of the number of gradations of structure that does not lead to an overestimation of structural changes, as well as the available assessment measures are significant differences scale structures. APPROVALS proposed method possible to identify the activities that make the maximum contribution to a structural change in both employment and the economy as a whole.

Keywords

structure of employment in Russia, economic activities, structural changes

Project finance

The article was published as part of the RHF grant No. 15-02-00567 "Demo economic potential of the region: macrosystemic approach"

Suggested Citation

Sarycheva Tat"jana Vladimirovna

Employment structure by economic activity and the dynamics of its changes. Regional economy and management: electronic scientific journal. . Art. #4821. Date issued: 2016-11-30. Available at: https://site/article/4821/

Introduction

One of the priority directions of the state employment policy is a course aimed at increasing the efficiency of use of labor resources. The structure of employment to a certain extent reflects the general structure of the economy and changes to a large extent under the influence of its changes. In this regard, it becomes obvious that the development of an effective employment policy should be facilitated by measures associated, first of all, with shifts in the structure of employment by type of economic activity. The experience of market transformations indicates that structural adjustment is one of the most difficult tasks. In this regard, there is an objective need to assess structural changes in employment by type of economic activity, the relevance of which is determined by a number of factors. First of all, there is a need to study and build up the theoretical base regarding structural processes, identify patterns and relationships between the distribution of employees by areas of activity, due to the fact that the processes occurring here are contradictory in content and diverse in form. Secondly, the insufficiency of methodological tools for studying structural changes in employment in relation to its structure by type of economic activity. Thirdly, the lack of clear conceptual frameworks and mechanisms in the development of structural employment policies at both the federal and regional levels.

In this study, the assessment of structural changes meant the study of the dynamics of the structure of employment by type of economic activity in the period from 2005 to 2014, their proportions and direction in order to determine the economic efficiency of the economy. The choice of time interval was due to the fact that since 2005 a new classifier of types of economic activity (OKVED) has been used, which is not comparable with the previously used industry classifier (OKONKH).

Main part (methodology, results)

In the last decade, quite serious changes have occurred in Russia in the structure of employment by type of economic activity. Analyzing the extreme periods of the time interval under study, it should be noted that a number of activities have significantly increased the specific type of labor resources employed in them. These primarily include wholesale trade, where the share of employees here increased from 16.6% to 18.7%, real estate transactions and construction, where the share of employees increased by 1.4 and 1.0 percentage points, respectively. Some types of activities, on the contrary, have lost a significant share of personnel: the share of people employed in manufacturing over the past ten years has decreased by 2.6 percentage points, the share of people employed in agriculture has decreased by 1.9 percentage points and amounted to 9.2 in 2014 % versus 11.1 in 2014 (Fig. 1).

Figure 1 – Distribution of the number of employees by type of economic activity, 2005, 2014 (%)

A study of the annual dynamics of changes in the share of the employed population by type of economic activity made it possible to distinguish three types of economic activities: the first included types of activities with a steady trend of growth in the share of workers; to the second - types of activities where no stable trend was detected, to the third - with a steady reduction. The results are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 - Dynamics of the share of employees by type of economic activity in 2005-2014.

The dynamics of changes in the mass of structural shifts, which was calculated as the difference in the share of the structural indicator in the current and base periods (2005), confirmed and proved the division of types of economic activities into three groups. A stable increase in the share of the employed population by type of economic activity is observed mainly in non-production areas.

Analysis of the dynamics of indicators of the mass of structural changes in the period from 2005 to 2014. showed that six types of activities (hotels and restaurants, public administration, financial activities, construction, real estate operations, wholesale and retail trade) in the period under study were characterized by an increase in the share of the employed population. If in 2004 39.5% were employed in these areas, then by 2014 the share of employees was already 45.1%. The trend of increasing the share of activities employed in this group allowed the value of the total mass of the structural shift to increase in relation to the base year 2005 from 0.7 to 5.6.

Table 2 - Indicators of the mass of structural changes 2005-2014.

Six types of activities (provision of other services, fishing and fish farming, mining, transport and communications, healthcare and electricity, gas and water), against the background of quantitative changes in absolute terms, retained their positions in terms of specific weights. Other types of activities ( Agriculture, manufacturing, education) worsened their positions. First of all, this concerns manufacturing industries - a type of economic activity that over the past ten years has lost its position as the leader in terms of the share of the employed population. The value of the total mass of structural changes by 2014 reached -5.4 against -0.9 in 2006.

To better understand the trends in structural changes in employment by type of economic activity, a unique study was carried out. factor analysis mass of structural shift, which made it possible to distinguish it into two components:

1. Internal shift - a change in the share of the analyzed type of activity in the total structure of those employed in the economy, caused by a change in the number of labor resources of this type of activity with conditional constancy of those employed in other types of activity;
2. External shift is a change in the share of the analyzed type of activity in the total structure of the employed, caused by a change in the number of labor resources employed in other types of activity.

The assessment of internal and external shifts in employment by groups of economic activity included the following stages:

Where i— group number; – actual employment in i-th group in 2005 (persons); – actual employment in i-th group at a point in time t(persons)

(2)

where is the actual share of the employed population in i-th group of types of economic activity in 2005, %

where is the mass of the structural shift in i-th group of economic activities at a point in time t, %

The analysis showed that throughout the entire study period For first group types of activities are characterized by a resonance effect as a whole, that is, in this case, a significant “net influx” of labor resources is enhanced by the “influx” from other types of activities of the country’s economy. In addition, the analysis of changes in the first group of activities revealed some “discrepancy in the nature” of the effects of external shifts for individual types of activities and the group as a whole.

If we consider types of activities separately types of economic activity, then a compensatory effect is predominantly observed. The effect of an external shift on an internal one, characterized as resonant in the time interval under study, was characteristic of only two types of activities, but in different periods of time for two types of activities: wholesale and retail trade in 2009-2014. and operations with real estate in 2014 (Table 2.7), that is, during this period, the influx of people employed in these two types of activities occurred not only due to internal flows of labor resources and was ensured by a general increase in the number of employed people.

Table 3 – Analysis of changes in the distribution of the employed population by type of economic activity

A study of the total value of internal and external shifts in the first group of activities led to the conclusion that over the past ten years, both internal and external shifts have been growing throughout the entire period (Fig. 2).

Figure 2 – Dynamics of the total value of internal and external shifts in the first group of activities, 2006-2014 (pp.)

An analysis of the proportions of the average sizes of internal and external shifts in the total mass of structural changes showed that changes in the share of the employed population are primarily determined by the internal shift, that is, the increase in the number of employed here is primarily due to the general increase in the number of employed population in the country's economy generally. At the same time, the average growth rate of the external shift exceeds the average growth rate of the internal shift by 14.1 percentage points.

In the period 2005-2014. in the third group types of activities of the country's economy, a negative external shift had a resonant effect on the internal shift. In addition, the reduction in employment in this group was accompanied by a steady increase in the number of labor resources in other areas (Fig. 3).

Figure 3 – Dynamics of the share of people employed in the second group of activities, 2005-2014 (%)

Manufacturing industry has been and remains one of the leaders in terms of the share of the population employed in it, but if the average annual number of people employed in the manufacturing sector has been declining in the last ten years at a rate of 1.6%, then the share of those employed at an even faster rate - at a rate of 1. 8%. In 2007, there was a significant increase in the number of people employed in other types of activities in relation to the analyzed one (the growth rate compared to 2005 was 101.8%), as a result of which the external shift in manufacturing industries during this period was almost twice as large as the internal one. In general, it can be stated that the downward trend in the share of employees in enterprises and organizations related to the manufacturing industry in the total structure of employees is entirely due to the magnitude of the internal structural shift (Fig. 4).

Figure 4 – Dynamics of the share of internal and external shifts in the total mass of structural shifts in manufacturing industries, 2006-2014 (%)

Russian agriculture is characterized by a steady downward trend in its share in the total structure of employment throughout the analyzed period. The exceptions are 2009 and 2010, however, the stabilization of the indicator characterizing the share of the population at the 2008 level of 9.8% is due to the fact that in 2009 there was a significant reduction in the number of employed in the economy as a whole, and in 2010 – the growth rate of employment in agriculture (100.6%) was slightly higher than the growth in the number of employed in the economy as a whole. Throughout the period in agriculture, external shifts have had a resonant effect on internal ones. In 2009, the “net outflow” of labor resources from the analyzed type of activity occurred against the background of a general decline in employment, as a result of which the “reduction” of the external shift “mitigated” the overall drop in the share in the total employment structure. Moreover, the contribution of internal shift to the amount of mass of structural shift in agriculture is even more significant than in manufacturing industries. This suggests that the “net outflow” of labor resources from the analyzed type of activity occurred against the background of slight fluctuations in employment in other types of activities (Fig. 5).

Figure 5 – Dynamics of the share of internal and external shifts in the total mass of structural shifts in agriculture, 2006-2014 (%)

Education was classified as a third group of activities, since over the course of ten years there has been a steady downward trend in its share; moreover, this type of activity is characterized by a significant reduction in the number of employees: by 8.6% compared to 2005, and a slight increase in the share in 2009 g. is due to the “net outflow” of labor resources from other activities.

Summarizing the results of the analysis of the third group of activities, it can be noted that for these types of activities a number of the following conditions are met: firstly, the analyzed activities make the greatest contribution to the overall change in employment of the country's population; secondly, they have some of the most significant significant specific gravity in the total structure of those employed in the country’s economy; thirdly, here in the analyzed period there is a steady tendency towards a decrease in the share in the total structure of the employed, while the contribution of the internal shift to the resulting value is more significant.

As already noted, to second group These include types of activities that did not show any stable trend towards change during the analyzed period. An analysis of the situation in the second group of activities of the Russian economy (Table 2.6) allowed us to conclude that in 2006-2014. a compensatory effect was observed due to the “lagging” rate of decline in employment in other areas of activity from the rate of reduction of labor resources in the second group. It seems that the development of an effective employment policy in this group of economic activities should be facilitated by measures associated, first of all, with shifts in the structure of employment.

At the next stage of the structural-dynamic analysis of employment by type of economic activity, the following were used to calculate general indicators of structural changes in employment:

• linear coefficient of absolute differences in population structures;
• root mean square coefficient of absolute differences in population structures;
• linear coefficient of relative differences in population structures;
• root mean square coefficient of relative differences in population structures.

Table 4 – Summary of indicators of structural changes in employment

Based on the obtained results of linear and mean square coefficients of absolute differences in structures, it can be concluded that when calculating the basic coefficients, significant structural changes are noted in the structure of employment by type of economic activity. And for the periods from 2005 to 2014. the value of the root mean square coefficient of absolute differences in the structure of the unemployed population was 1.13, which indicates a high level of differences in structures for this period. When calculating indicators on a chain basis, mostly small structural changes are observed in the employment structure. The maximum values ​​characterized the period from 2007 to 2009, which, of course, can be attributed to the consequences of the financial crisis of 2008. It should be noted that the considered indicators of structural changes are characterized by a certain limitation, which consists in the difficulty of meaningfully assessing the measure of significance of quantitative differences between two individual structures. The problem is due to the fact that the estimates in question do not have a clear upper limit of values ​​and do not have criteria for identifying their measures. Ryabtsev's coefficient - the integral coefficient of structural differences - which is the ratio of the actual measure of the discrepancy between the values ​​of the components of two structures to the maximum possible value of discrepancies has more advanced analytical properties than the linear and root-mean-square coefficients. The advantage of this index over other methods for measuring changes in the size of the employed population is that its value does not depend on the number of gradations of structures, therefore there is no overestimation of structural changes, and also in the presence of a scale for assessing the significance of differences in structures according to the index.

A comparative analysis of the basic and chain values ​​of the Ryabtsev index allowed us to conclude that the structure of the employed population by type of economic activity is quite stable during the period of time under study. A comparison of chain structural indicators in recent years has shown that all adjacent periods were interpreted as “identity of structures”, that is, the processes of gradual changes in workers engaged in certain types of activities have similar dynamics, while if basic indicators are used for assessment purposes, then from Figure 6 it is clearly visible that in the last decade there has been a transformation of the employment system: by the end of 2014, the Ryabtsev index reached the upper limit of the interval, which is interpreted as a very low level of differences.

Figure 6 – Dynamics of indices of structural differences in the structure of employment by type of economic activity, 2006-2014.

To assess the impact of each type of activity on the overall change in employment, the method of relative values ​​was used, the essence of which is to calculate the contribution of each type of activity to the above-determined indicators of the intensity of structural changes. For this purpose, the differences between the shares of each industry in the year were taken t And t-1 and calculated as a percentage the ratio of the value of the resulting difference to the sum of the absolute values ​​of structural changes in groups as a percentage. Obviously, the greater the value of this contribution, the more significant the changes in a particular industry affect the intensity of structural changes in employment. The results of ranking types of economic activities by the nature of their influence on the overall change in employment in the Russian economy are presented in Table 6.

Table 6 – Ranking of types of economic activities by the nature of their influence on the overall change in employment in the Russian economy

	Basic structure, 2005	Change for the period 2005-2014	Change due to type of activity, %	Rank by contribution to employment change	Rank by contribution to increase	Rank by contribution to reduction
The first group of types of economic activity
Construction	7,4	1	8,8	5	3	—
Wholesale and retail trade	16,6	2,1	18,6	2	1	—
Hotels and restaurants	1,7	0,2	1,8	9,10	6	—
Financial activities	1,3	0,6	5,3	7	4	—
Real estate transactions	7,3	1,4	12,4	4	2	—
Public administration	5,2	0,3	2,7	8	5	—
Second group of economic activities
Fishing, fish farming	0,2	0,0	0,0	—	—	—
Mining	1,6	0,0	0,0	—	—	—
Production and distribution of electricity, gas and water	2,9	-0,1	-0,9	11	—	5
Transport and communications	8	0	0,0	—	—	—
Healthcare	6,8	-0,2	-1,8	9,10	—	4
Provision of other services	3,7	0,0	0,0	—	—	—
The third group of economic activities
Agriculture, hunting and forestry	11,1	-1,9	-16,8	3	—	2
Manufacturing industries	17,2	-2,6	-23,0	1	—	1
Education	9	-0,9	-8,0	6	—	3

Over the ten years studied, more than half (58.4%) of structural changes were associated with changes in the number of people employed in manufacturing (23.0%), wholesale and retail trade (18.6%) and agriculture (18.8%) . A significant contribution to the change in the structure of employment by type of economic activity was made by transactions with real estate (12.4%) and construction (8.8%). Noteworthy is the fact that the first group includes types of activities that made both the greatest contribution to the growth of the labor force, and types of activities that occupy a rather “middle” position (public administration - 2.7% and hotels and restaurants - 1 ,8%). This indicates that a steady upward trend in its share in the total employment structure does not always equate to an increased contribution to employment growth.

Health care and the production and distribution of electricity, gas and water were classified in the second group of activities, however, these activities have the fourth and fifth ranks, respectively, in terms of their contribution to employment reduction. This is due to the fact that the rate of decline in employment in other types of activities during the entire analyzed period was lower than in these types of activities.

Conclusion

Thus, based on the obtained calculation and analytical data on structural changes in the economy, it is possible to establish the causes of structural changes, its magnitude and other parametric characteristics. Regarding the study, it was determined that the main reasons for structural changes in the structure of employment by type of economic activity are, for the most part, associated with internal contradictions, disparate interests of society and the unsustainable socio-economic development of the country. Practice shows that at the present stage of economic development, the main imperatives of a balanced structure of the economy are the economic and political stability of the country, the creation of foundations and the development of a new production and technological system based on an advanced technological structure within the framework of structural modernization and structural policy, and thanks to which the state is able to obtain competitive advantages in the long term. The formation of a balanced economic structure is possible only with the direct participation of the state and the coincidence of priorities and public needs. This is where the exclusive role of the state is manifested in smoothing out the negative consequences of structural adaptation (reduction in production volumes, the withering away of unviable and ineffective segments of the economic system, etc.)

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9. Sarycheva T.V. Methodology for comparative analysis of structural shifts in population employment / T.V. Sarycheva // Current problems of development of the Russian economy, collection of materials from the interregional scientific and practical conference. Yoshkar-Ola, 2012. – pp. 179-181.
10. Sadovnikova N.A. Time series analysis and forecasting / N.A. Sadovnikova, R.A. Shmoilova // Moscow, 2016. – 152 p.

References

1. Krasil'nikov O.Ju. Structural shifts in the economy: theory and methodology. Nauchnaya book, 1999, 74p.
2. Regions of Russia. Socio-economic indicators. 2015. Stat. coll. . Rosstat. M., 2015. 1266 p.
3. Shmidt Ju.I. Indicators for assessing structural changes in the agricultural sector of the economy. Almanac of Modern Science and Education, 2013. No. 6 (73) pp.190-193
4. Miljaeva L.G. Methods of rapid diagnosis of the employment policy of the population of the administrative-territorial units. Vestnik Omsk University. Series “Economy”, 2014. No. 4. pp. 102-108.
5. Elhina I.A. Structural changes and structural differences in economic systems in Russia. Saratov Journal socio-economic state-owned university, 2014. No. 4 (53) pp.38-41
6. Mhitarjan V.S. Analysis of data. Textbook. Moscow, 2016. 503 p.
7. Kuznekov V.I. The role of statistics in the employment process control. Questions of Statistics, 1999. No. 6. pp. 26-31.
8. Bakumenko L.P. Analysis of intensity of structural changes of employment in the region. Vestnik Povolzhskii tehnolohycheskoho state-owned university. Series. Economics and Management, 2011. No. 1. pp. 82-96.
9. Sarycheva T.V. The methodology of comparative analysis of structural changes in employment. Actual problems of development of the economy of Russia collections of materials mezhrehyonalnoy scientific conference. Yoshkar-Ola, 2012. pp. 179-181.
10. Sadovnikova N.A. Time Series Analysis and Forecasting. Moscow, 2016. 152 p.

The employment of the Russian population and its nature are determined by various factors. First of all, this is a raw material orientation Russian economy, monocentrism, the predominance of market relations and sufficient technological backwardness. The nature of employment is also affected by the size of real wages. Labor productivity in our country is low, which means more labor is required. At the same time, finding a job in your specialty is not always possible.

Legal and shadow employment

In Russia there is an acute problem with the legalization of employment. Every year the number of workers involved in the shadow sector of the economy is growing rapidly. In 2016, according to official data, their share was 21.2% of the total - a total of 15.4 million people. This shows the employment structure of the Russian population. Those involved in shadow employment can be divided into 2 types:

1. Those who receive a salary without paying taxes.
2. The so-called self-employed, who work informally and also do not pay taxes.

The above figures are probably underestimates, since accounting for such sectors is extremely difficult. For example, estimates given by RANEPA give a figure of 40%. True, it also includes those who have an official job, but additionally earn extra money in the shadow sector.

Every year, both the number of self-employed and the number of those who receive “gray” salaries at their place of work or have informal part-time jobs increase. Thus, the number of people receiving “gray” salaries from 2013 to 2016 increased from 35 to 54 percent.

Reasons for the growth of shadow employment

One of the main reasons for the growth of the shadow sector is the increasing number of cases of layoffs of employees from various organizations where they officially worked. The growing number of migrants also contributes to an increase in the share of informal part-time work. The desire to save money on employees is becoming a common occurrence. This makes it possible to put a greater workload on the remaining workers, and perhaps slightly increase their wages. The latter may be especially relevant in the event of an increase in the minimum wage. However, in other cases, wages, on the contrary, are cut, including to a level below the minimum wage. This forces employees to look for other jobs, becoming temporarily unemployed.

Some of those laid off go into shadow employment. For many companies, laying off employees is the only way to survive in difficult times. economic conditions that have developed in Russia in recent years.

Other factors were: rising taxes and fees, widespread bureaucracy, and a general decline in real wages in the public sector. Many are now forced to earn extra money to cover previously incurred debts or to buy a car, since the latter category of expenses has become very prestigious. Many people want to improve their housing or simply earn more or less decent money. In these cases, part-time jobs coincide with the main job, but they can also be shadow.

Russian employment statistics

Employment and unemployment are largely interconnected. When a salary becomes too low or a person is laid off, he may become unemployed for a while. Someone goes to the labor exchange, but there are not many of them. After all, unemployment benefits are not growing, and their value is absolutely meager. And work on the stock exchange is often offered in the most indecent way, which few people agree to.

• Based on the number of people who applied to the labor exchange.
• Based on direct surveys of the population.

It is clear that the second option will provide more objective information about the real employment situation.

According to Rosstat figures, the unemployment rate in Russia is about 5%. According to independent sources, in reality it is 2-2.5 times higher. Higher rates, of course, are among young people. This means that employment problems in Russia are not an invention of opponents of the current government.

However, being unemployed does not mean that a person is unemployed. After all, many earn extra money unofficially, that is, in fact, they are both employed and unemployed at the same time.

Employment of the population of Russian regions

In Russia there is a fairly pronounced division into economically prosperous and backward regions. The first include oil and gas producing areas, regions of the Far North, the capital region, some agricultural and other areas. However, most of the country is backward to one degree or another. There is also a dependence on the size of cities: small towns and villages account for the majority of the unemployed. This means that there are problems with employment there.

Employment situation in 3-4 years

According to experts, the coming years may show a deterioration in the employment situation. The gradual increase in the retirement age and the desire of many organizations to get rid of “extra” employees can lead to a surplus of personnel. Unemployment could increase by up to 25%. Whether this will be the case or not, only time will tell, but an increase in unemployment is expected throughout 2018. Most likely, the process was going on before. At the very least, the number of people being laid off was increasing.

Specialists in the field of information technology will be most in demand on the labor market. There is also likely to be high demand for workers in oil production, new technologies and industrial sectors. At the same time, the demand for low-skilled labor will decline sharply. This means that it will not be easy for an ordinary worker to find a job. A market economy is not a planned socialist one. If employees are not needed, they will simply get rid of them.

Requirements for employees

Already, Russian citizens are forced to accept any job, even poorly paid one. But by 2022 the situation may become even tougher. Many employers place increased demands on their employees. At the same time, the institution of trade unions in our country, unlike other states, is being strangled in the bud. In addition, our salaries are almost not standardized, and directors can receive tens of times more than employees. People have no one to turn to for help, and they are forced to agree to the boss’s demands. For example, working on weekends or overtime.

In the future, employers' demands on employees are likely to only increase.

Workaholism and labor efficiency are different concepts. This was clearly confirmed by a recent OECD study that compared the number of working hours per year per citizen and his productivity per hour of work in 36 countries of the world.

In terms of the amount of time spent at work per year, Russia is in fifth place in the world and second in Europe, losing leadership in both positions to Mexico and Greece. According to analytics, a domestic employee works 1928 hours a year, while the world leader - Mexican - 2226 hours, and a European (Greek) 2034 hours a year.

But in terms of labor productivity, measured in GDP per hour of work (expressed in $), Russians occupy third place from the bottom of the OECD list. The economic efficiency of our labor is still one of the lowest in the world - only 25.9 $/hour. Only the most “hard-working” Mexico has a lower rate – $19.5/hour. But the leader in productivity in Europe and the world is Luxembourg: every working resident of this tiny country produces goods and services worth $95.9 per hour.

Let us recall that the employment rate is defined as the percentage of the number of employed citizens aged 15 to 64 years to the total number of citizens of the same age. According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), an employed person is a person over 15 years of age who is engaged in paid work for at least an hour a week.

We will also show in the ranking the distribution of workers by economic sector within each country, based on international analytics data from Rosstat.

1

Iceland

Employment rate - 82%

Günlöygur Seving. "H?karlinn tekinn inn"

If you believe the statistical yearbook of Iceland, then in the homeland of herring and the volcano with the unpronounceable name Eyjafjallajökull, 77% of the population works in the service sector: sales, customer service, training, healing, tourism and banking.

Only 18% of the economically active population participates in the manufacturing sector, mainly engaged in house construction and fish processing. The latter relates to the agricultural sector, where only 5% of Icelanders work.

Over the course of a year, one resident of the ice state spends 1,706 hours at work. And for each hour he produces services and goods for his country worth 48 US dollars.

2

Switzerland

Employment rate - 80%

Ferdinand Hodler. "Reaper"

The Swiss are known throughout the world for their watches, cheeses and chocolate. At the same time, only 20.3% of the population work in the manufacturing sector, and only 3.5% are interested in farming. The bulk of the inhabitants of the Alpine state - 72.5% - devote their time to the service sector.

With the precision of a Swiss watch, it is calculated that one resident spends 1,619 hours on work per year, and each of them adds $61.1 to the Alpine country’s GDP.

3

Norway

Employment rate - 75%

Jan Ekens. "Washing on a winter day"

In the kingdom of the fjords, 77.5% of workers are engaged in making a profit in the service sector. 20.2% of working Norwegians devote their energies to the industrial sector, including oil production, mining and construction, and 2.2% to agriculture and fishing.

In terms of productivity, an hour of hard work for a Norwegian is equal to $88. In a year, one resident of Norway works 1,418 hours.

4

Netherlands

Employment rate - 74%

Adrian van Utrecht. "Fish shop"

The Dutch are often called the Chinese of Europe for their tireless work ethic. Of the total number of hardworking subjects of His Majesty Willem-Alexander, 2.5% grow tulips, 15.2% make cheese and televisions and 71.4% provide various services.

Over the course of a year, Rembrandt’s compatriots spend 1,384 hours of their lives working, producing $64.3 per hour for their beloved Holland.

5

Denmark

Peder Severin Krøyer. "Fishermen in Skagen"

Statistics show that Danes enjoy working. They are most willing to work in the service sector - 77.6% of the total number of employees. About 19.6% of the population finds themselves in industry, and 2.6% in agriculture.

All this activity enriches the Danish kingdom by $63.3 every hour. Each Dane works 1,430 hours per year.

6

Germany

Employment rate - 73%

Adolf von Menzel. "Rolling Mill"

In the most pedantic country of the European Union, only 1.5% of the total number of German workers are engaged in growing vegetables and raising livestock. About 30% of Germans ensure the uninterrupted production of cars, Peregrine Falcons and Zeiss lenses. 70.3% of the German population is employed in various services.

The “drivers” of the European economic locomotive work 1,393 hours a year. The productivity of an hour of German labor is equal to the production of material goods worth $62.3.

7

Canada

Michelle Vacquant. "Symposium"

In maple syrup country, only 1.2% of the working population is involved in agriculture; extraction of oil, gas, coal and all types of ore - 20.9%. 78% of Canadians trade, train, treat, manage and provide other services.

Each Canadian contributes 1,711 working hours per year to support their country's economy. The efficiency of his work allows him to increase GDP by $50.7 in one hour.

8

Japan

Employment rate - 72%

Asano Takeji "Rice Production"

In Japan, the willingness to die on the job is taken literally and written into a resume. However, every day 4.2% of workaholics in the Land of the Rising Sun risk their lives in agriculture and fishing, 27.3% in the production of cars and computers, 68.5% in offices, shops and restaurants, serving the population and tourists.

Officially, every Japanese person devotes 1,745 hours of their life to work per year. In one hour, it increases Japan's economic indicators by $41.5.

9

Great Britain

Employment rate - 71%

Brighton Riviere. "The Old Gardener"

Subjects of the British crown are not used to sitting idle: 78.9% of Britons work in the service sector, including trade, education, healthcare and banking. Industry and construction employ 19% of the UK's working population. And only 1.2% of Britons are engaged in agriculture and fishing.

Each UK employee spends 1,654 hours working each year. The productivity of one hour is $50.5.

10

Finland

Eero Järnefelt. “Burning the forest for arable land”

In terms of employment levels, Russia's northern neighbors are "friends" with our country. In terms of efficiency, Finns are more successful than Russians: one Finn spends 1,679 hours a year working, and per hour of work he increases GDP by $53.6.

As in previous countries, the majority of citizens are employed in the service sector of the economy - 72.7%. 4.1% of Finns of working age work in the economic sector, and 22.7% of Finns of working age work in the manufacturing sector.

11

Russia

Employment rate - 69%

Ilya Repin "Barge Haulers on the Volga"

In comparison with other countries, it is easy to notice that our country is a real agricultural leader. Of the total number of employed Russians, 7% work in the agricultural sector. 27.8% of compatriots work in steel rolling machines, coal and oil mining, and construction of houses and spaceports. And in the non-production sector we lag behind our neighbors in terms of rating: 65.5% of Russians are employed here.

Let us remember that each of us works an average of 1928 hours per year. The productivity of an hour in our country is equal to the production of GDP in the amount of $25.9.

Agglomeration- a set of neighboring cities and settlements, closely connected by various forms of relations. The set of agglomerations neighboring in a certain territory is called megalopolis. The largest agglomerations in the world according to 2005 data are: Tokyo, Mexico City, Seoul, New York, Sao Paulo, Mumbai (Bombay), Delhi, Los Angeles, Shanghai, Jakarta, Osaka, Calcutta, Cairo, Manila, Karachi.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)- the total cost of all goods and services produced during the year in the country. The gap in basic indicators of the level and quality of life between developed countries and developing countries is quite large. This indicator is also significantly influenced by the population of countries. So, if in developed countries GDP per capita averages $25,000 (according to 2004 data), for example, in Luxembourg - $54,000, in the USA - $38,000, etc., then in developing countries - only $1,500 (in Russia this figure is equal to $9,000), the minimum indicators are typical for underdeveloped countries (Tanzania, Malawi, Republic of the Congo).

Age structure— the relationship between individual age categories of people, among which are persons of childhood, working age and old age. The age structure of the population depends on population reproduction. In countries with the first type In population reproduction, the proportion of elderly people may be even higher than the proportion of children—an aging population is observed. In countries with the second type reproduction, where high birth rates are recorded, the proportion of elderly people is minimal.

Reproduction ( natural movement) population is a set of processes of fertility, mortality and natural increase that ensure the renewal and change of human generations. Indicators of fertility, mortality and natural increase are expressed per 1000 inhabitants, i.e. per mille (‰). The classification of types of reproduction, based on a historical approach, is presented in Table 1.

Another classification takes into account the ratio of fertility and mortality rates. First type characteristic of economically developed countries (low birth and death rates), natural growth does not exceed 10 people per thousand inhabitants, and sometimes negative (natural population decline is observed). Second type characteristic of developing countries (high birth rate and natural increase, decreasing mortality). The highest rates of natural growth are characteristic of the least developed African countries, as well as the Arab countries of South-West Asia.

Demography is the science of the laws of population reproduction, its numbers and natural increase, sex and age composition. She studies territorial population groups, systems of populated areas, features of their development and formation in different socio-economic and other conditions.

Demographic policy- a set of measures aimed at regulating the birth rate in order to increase or reduce natural population growth.

Population explosion— rapid growth of the world population. The term was introduced in the 60s. The twentieth century, when the highest population growth rates in world history were observed.

Demographic transition- a theory according to which the level of fertility and mortality is determined not by biological laws, but by social conditions. These are sequential changes in fertility, mortality and natural increase as the socio-economic development of countries changes.

Natural increase- the difference between fertility and mortality can be positive or negative.

Population migrations (mechanical movement of the population)- movement of the population from one territory to another for the purpose of permanent or temporary residence there. Emigration population - leaving the country, immigration population - entry into the country.

Density- the degree of population of the territory, expressed in the number of permanent population per 1 km 2 of territory. The average land population density is about 45 people per km2. Historically, the five most densely populated regions are: East Asia, the Indo-Gangetic Plain, Southeast Asia, northwest Europe, and the Atlantic coast of the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada.

Sexual structure- the ratio between men and women, most often expressed in relative terms. In general, the ratio is approximately equal throughout the world. A record high proportion of men is typical for Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, and Oman, where high birth rates and a young age structure (men predominate in childhood in all countries) are accompanied by a massive influx of immigrants, among whom men predominate.

Urbanization— the process of increasing the share of the urban population, outpacing the growth of the largest cities and the spread of the urban lifestyle. Half the world's population now lives in cities. Economically developed countries have the highest level of urbanization, where the share of city dwellers often exceeds 70%; in developing countries the level of urbanization is about 30%. However, developing countries with a high level of urbanization (more than 80%) stand out, for example, Argentina, Chile, Venezuela, Uruguay, Lebanon, Bahrain. These countries are called pseudo-urbanized because urban population growth and poor quality developments outpace the capabilities of the city's industrial base. The modern process of urbanization is accompanied by such phenomena as suburbanization (increased growth of suburbs as opposed to the central part of the city) and urbanization (spread of suburban areas into rural areas).

Ethnos- a historically established group of people, characterized by a common territory, language, culture, way of life, traditions, economic activity, and the consciousness of belonging to a given people.

Types of population reproduction (according to Kuznetsov A.P.)

Countries in the world with the largest territory and population

№	Countries in the world with the largest territory	Million km 2	№	Countries in the world with the largest populations	Million people in 2008
1.	Russia	17,08	1.	China	1,338
2.	Canada	9,98	2.	India	1,148
3.	USA	9,93	3.	USA	304
4.	China	9,6	4.	Indonesia	238
5.	Brazil	8,51	5.	Brazil	196
6.	Australia	7,69	6.	Pakistan	173
7.	India	3,29	7.	Bangladesh	154
8.	Argentina	2,77	8.	Nigeria	146
9.	Kazakhstan	2,72	9.	Russia	141
10.	Sudan	2,51	10.	Japan	127
11.	Algeria	2,38	11.	Mexico	110

Religions of the world

Religion		Number of adherents, million people. (2005)	Countries of distribution
1		2	3
Christianity	Catholicism	1015	Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Ireland, Poland, Lithuania, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Latin American countries, USA, Philippines
	Orthodoxy	300	Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, countries of Southern and Eastern Europe (Bulgaria, Macedonia, Greece, Moldova, Serbia, Montenegro, Romania, Cyprus)
	Protestantism	640	UK, Nordic and Baltic countries, Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa
Islam (Muslim)	Sunnism	1150	Countries of the Middle East and North Africa, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Malaysia, Brunei, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, some countries of tropical Africa (Nigeria), Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Albania
	Shiism	17	Iran, Azerbaijan, Iraq, Yemen
Buddhism		400	South, Southeast and Central Asia (DPRK, Mongolia, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Republic of Korea)
Religions of the peoples of the world
Hinduism		860	India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Guyana, Suriname
Confucianism		390	China
Shintoism		90	Japan
Judaism		13	Israel

Classification of countries by population density

Major language families and groups

Family	Group	Peoples	Main settlement areas
Indo-European	Indo-Arabian	Hindustani, Marathi, Gypsies	India, Pakistan, Bangladesh
	Romanskaya	Italians, French, Spanish, Mexicans, Venezuelans, Colombians, Peruvians, Chileans, Brazilians, Romanians, Moldovans	Southern Europe, Latin America
	German	Germans, English, Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders, Anglo-Americans, etc.	Germany, Great Britain, Netherlands, USA
	Slavic	Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Croats, Serbs, Bulgarians, Czechs, Slovaks	Russia, Eastern Europe
	Iranian	Kurds, Tajiks, Persians, Afghans, Ossetians, Tats	Iran, Afghanistan, Russia
Altai	Turkic	Turks, Turkmen, Kazakhs, Uzbeks, Kyrgyz, Yakuts, Azerbaijanis, Chuvash, Tatars, Bashkirs, Nogais, Kumyks, Karachais, Balkars, Gagauz, Altaians, Khakass, Tuvans, Shors, Dolgans, etc.	Türkiye, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Azerbaijan, Russia
	Mongolian	Khalkha Mongols, Mongols of China, Buryats, Kalmyks	Mongolia, Russia, China
Ural-Yukaghir	Finno-Ugric	Finns, Estonians, Karelians, Komi, Khanty, Mansi, Sami, Udmurts, Mari, Mordovians, Komi-Permyaks	Russia, Finland, Estonia
	Yukagirskaya	Yukaghirs, Chuvans	Russia
Caucasian	Abkhaz-Adyghe	Abkhazians, Adygeis, Kabardians, Circassians, Abazas
	Nakh-Dagestan	Chechens, Ingush, Avars, Dargins, Lezgins, Aguls, etc.	Russia, Transcaucasian republics
Semitohamite	Semitic	Arab peoples, Jews, Amhara	Arabian Peninsula, North Africa
	Berber	Tuaregs, Kabyles	Algeria, Mali
	Cushitic	Somalia	Somalia
Eskimo-Aleutian		Eskimos, Aleuts	Russia, USA (Alaska)

Twenty of the "youngest" and "oldest" countries in the world (2005)

The "youngest" countries	Share of people under 15 years of age in the population, %	The "oldest" countries	Proportion of people over 65 years of age in the population, %
Uganda	50	Italy	20
Niger	49	Japan	20
Mali	48	Germany	19
DR Congo	47	Belgium	18
Congo	47	Greece	18
Malawi	47	France	17
Burkina Faso	47	Bulgaria	17
Chad	47	Croatia	17
Liberia	47	Portugal	17
Angola	46	Latvia	17
Zambia	46	Estonia	17
Yemen	46	Sweden	17
Ethiopia	45	Austria	17
Eritrea	45	Great Britain	16
Burundi	45	Finland	16
Palestine	45	Spain	16
Nigeria	44	Slovenia	16
Benin	44	Ukraine	16
Somalia	44	Hungary	15
Mozambique	44	Belarus	15

World economy

Basic concepts, processes, patterns and their consequences

International geographical division labor (MGRT)- this is the specialization of individual countries in the production of certain types of products and services intended for export to the world market.

World economy- a historically established set of national economies of all countries of the world, interconnected by global economic relations based on the international division of labor.

Non-production sphere is a set of industries serving the needs of the population (housing and communal services, education, healthcare, etc.).

Sectoral structure of the economy- the composition of the economy of a country, region or territory by forms of production activity, by types of products produced, services provided, etc., the relationship between the main divisions of the economy - industries.

Manufacturing sector- this is a set of industries that directly create a material product (industry, agriculture and forestry, construction) or deliver this product to the consumer (transport, communications, trade, etc.).

Economic integration I am an economic unification of states, the highest degree of MGRT, a form of internationalization of productive forces, the process of intertwining national economies and the implementation of coordinated interstate policies both between the countries themselves and in relation to third countries.

Main integration associations, beginning of the 21st century.

Name	Year of formation	Number of members	Main goals and objectives
1	2	3	4
United Nations (UN)	1945	192 (unites almost all sovereign states)	Prevention of wars, fight against colonialism, gross and massive violations of human rights, activities in the field of international economic relations
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)	1949	26 (USA, Canada, Belgium, UK, Germany, Greece, Denmark, Iceland, Spain, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Turkey, France, Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Slovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia)	Military-Political Union; creation of a unified defense system
European Union (until 1994 European Economic Community, "Common Market")	1957	27 (Austria, Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Greece, Denmark, Ireland, Spain, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Finland, France, Sweden, Estonia, Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Cyprus, Lithuania, Slovakia, Latvia, Malta, Bulgaria, Romania)	Formation of a single economy, union by creating conditions for the free movement of goods, capital, labor between countries
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)	1967	10 (Brunei, Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Philippines, Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia)	Economic, social, cultural cooperation and development of relations between the states of the region
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)	1960	12 (Algeria, Venezuela, Iraq, Iran, Qatar, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, UAE, Saudi Arabia, Angola, Ecuador)	Establishment of world oil prices and control over its production and sale
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)	1984	21 (Australia, Brunei, Vietnam, Hong Kong (China SAR), Indonesia, Canada, China, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Russia, Singapore, USA, Taiwan Island, Philippines, Thailand, Chile, Japan)
North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA)	1994	3 (USA, Canada, Mexico)	Free trade zone, economic cooperation and development of relations between states
Latin American Integration Association (LAAI)	1980	12 (Argentina, Bolivia, Venezuela, Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Chile, Uruguay, Ecuador)	Free trade zone, economic cooperation and development of relations between states
Southern Cone Common Market (MERCOSUR)	1991	4 (Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay)	Common Market
Arab Maghreb Union	1989	5 (Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia)	Economic cooperation
Union of Independent States (CIS)	1991	11 (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Ukraine)	Economic cooperation and development of relations between states
BRICS	2011	5 (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa)	Economic cooperation, trade association

GDP structure for some countries of the world

State name	Share of agriculture in GDP (%)	Share of industry in GDP (%)	Share of services sector in GDP (%)	Region
1	2	3	4	5
The whole world	4	32	64
European Union	2	27	71
Commonwealth of Australia	4	26	70	Australia and Oceania
New Zealand	4	27	68
Papua New Guinea	35	38	27
Solomon Islands	42	11	47
Federate. states of micronesia	50	4	46
Afghanistan	38	24	38	Asia
Azerbaijan	14	46	40
Bangladesh	20	20	60
Israel	3	32	66
India	19	28	54
Indonesia	13	46	41
Iraq	7	67	26
Iran	12	42	46
Kazakhstan	7	39	55
Qatar	0	80	20
China	13	47	40
Kuwait	0	48	52
Laos	46	29	26
Malaysia	8	48	44
Mongolia	21	21	58
Myanmar	56	8	35
Nepal	38	21	41
UAE	4	59	38
Oman	3	39	58
Pakistan	22	25	53
The Republic of Korea	3	40	56
Saudi Arabia	3	61	35
Singapore	0	40	66
Türkiye	12	30	59
Uzbekistan	34	23	43
Philippines	14	33	53
Japan	2	26	73
Argentina	10	36	55	America
Bolivia	13	35	52
Brazil	8	40	52
Venezuela	4	42	54
Haiti	28	20	52
Canada	2	29	68
Mexico	4	26	70
Nicaragua	17	28	56
Panama	7	16	78
Paraguay	22	21	57
Peru	8	27	65
Suriname	13	22	65
USA	1	20	79
Algeria	10	60	30	Africa
Angola	10	66	25
Guinea	24	36	40
Guinea-Bissau	62	12	26
Egypt	15	36	49
Cameroon	45	17	38
Liberia	77	5	18
Madagascar	28	17	56
Mali	45	17	38
Morocco	22	36	43
Niger	39	17	44
Nigeria	27	49	24
Somalia	65	10	25
Tanzania	43	17	40
Ethiopia	48	10	43
South Africa	3	30	67
Austria	2	30	68	Europe
Albania	23	19	58
Belarus	9	32	59
Belgium	1	24	75
Bulgaria	9	30	60
Bosnia and Herzegovina	14	31	55
Great Britain	1	24	76
Hungary	4	31	65
Greece	5	21	73
Denmark	2	25	74
Spain	4	30	67
Italy	2	29	69
Latvia	4	26	70
Lithuania	6	33	62
Luxembourg	1	13	86
Macedonia	12	32	56
Moldova	21	23	56
Netherlands	2	24	74
Norway	2	42	56
Poland	5	31	64
Portugal	5	27	67
Russian Federation	5	37	58
Romania	10	35	55
Serbia	17	26	58
Ukraine	19	45	36
Finland	3	30	68
France	2	21	76
Germany	1	30	70
Czech	3	39	57
Switzerland	2	34	65
Sweden	1	28	71

Leading countries in industry

A country	Industry	Indicator 2004,% in the world
Saudi Arabia	Oil	About 500 million tons - 13
China	Coal	1900 million tons - 43
Russia	Gas	About 600 billion m3 - 22
USA	Electric power industry	4150 billion kWh - 24
USA	Manufacturing industry	24
China	Iron ore mining	255 million tons - 21
China	Steelmaking	270 million tons - 26
Chile	Copper ore mining	5400 thousand tons - 37
Chile	Copper industry	2900 thousand tons of copper - 19
Australia	Bauxite mining	55,000 thousand tons - 36
China	Aluminum	6000 thousand tons - 21
Japan	Truck production	7.8 million pieces — 26
Japan	Production passenger cars	8.8 million pieces - 19
Japan	Machine tool industry	23
China	Chemical production fibers	15 million tons - 36
USA	Phosphate fertilizers	8 million tons - 23
Canada	Potash fertilizers	8 million tons - 30
USA	Synthetic rubber	2.4 million tons - 22
China	Nitrogen fertilizers	24 million tons - 27

Leading countries in agriculture

A country	Agriculture	Indicator 2004,% in the world
China	Wheat	90 million tons - 14
China	Rice	190 million tons - 31
USA	Corn	300 million tons - 41
USA	Soybeans	85 million tons - 42
Russia	Sunflower	4.4 million tons - 16
Spain	Olives	4.5 million tons - 27
China	Potato	75 million tons - 23
Brazil	Sugar cane	420 million tons - 31
France	Sugar beet	30 million tons - 12
China	Cotton fiber	6.3 million tons - 32
China	Flax fiber, tow	470 thousand tons - 63
Italy	Grape	8.7 million tons - 13
Brazil	Coffee	2500 thousand tons - 32
China	Tea	870 thousand tons - 26
Ivory Coast	Cocoa	1350 thousand tons -34
China	Apples	22 million tons - 35
India	Bananas	17 million tons - 23
Brazil	Oranges	18 million tons - 28

Leading countries in electricity generation at different types of power plants

Leading countries in some indicators of global transport development

By lenght railways	Chile, Russia, Canada, China, India
By railway density	Albania, Czech Republic, Belgium, Germany, Luxembourg
By lenght highways	USA, India, Brazil, China, Japan
By density of roads	Singapore, Belgium, Japan, Netherlands, Austria
By length of oil pipelines	Russia, Kazakhstan, Norway, France, Ukraine
By cargo turnover of oil pipelines	Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, France, Kazakhstan
Largest seaports by cargo turnover	Rotterdam (Netherlands), Singapore (Singapore), New Orleans (USA), Kobe (Japan), New York (USA)
By the number of all ships	Japan, USA, Russia, China, Republic of Korea, Indonesia
By total tonnage (cargo capacity) of all ships	Liberia, Panama, Japan, Greece, Singapore, Thailand, China, USA, Cyprus

Largest hydroelectric power plants in the world

№	Name	A country	River	Power (GW)
1	"Sanxia" ("Three Gorges")	China	Yangtze	22,4
2	"Itaipu"	Brazil/Paraguay	Parana	14,0
3	"Guri"	Venezuela	Caroni (tributary of the Orinoco)	10,3
4	"Tukurui"	Brazil	Tocantins	9,8
5	"Grand Coulee"	USA	Colombia	6,8
6	Sayano-Shushenskaya	Russia	Yenisei	6,4
7	Krasnoyarsk	Russia	Yenisei	6,0
8	"Robert-Bourassa"	Canada	La Grande	5,6
9	"Churchill Falls"	Canada	Churchill	5,4
10	"Corpus Posados"	Argentina/Paraguay	Parana	4,7