The consequence of production is not only inflation. The decline in the level of development of all economic spheres of society cannot but affect the state of the labor market. Inflation and unemployment reach their highest levels during periods of crisis, but these phenomena cannot be equated. It is necessary to clearly see the differences between inflation and unemployment.

The first of these phenomena reduces the living standards of citizens. Unemployment physically reshapes existing ones. Society, which has spent considerable resources on training qualified personnel, is faced with their uselessness. Millions of workers are simply superfluous to production.

It is possible that time will pass and the situation will change. Companies and organizations will once again need specialists. However, their dexterity and skill will be somewhat lost, and moral breakdown after experiencing an unstable situation will also take its toll. To restore labor resources, society will need to provide its citizens with social and economic support, the level of which will directly depend on the type and duration of unemployment. This is why deep knowledge about this phenomenon is so important.

Basic concept

Unemployment is a socio-economic phenomenon when a certain part of the active population does not have the opportunity to fully realize their mental and physical abilities in the processes of production of services and goods. Unemployment of citizens also occurs in cases where the demand for labor resources exceeds their supply.

Historical facts

The efficiency of using labor has changed as human society has developed. Thus, under the primitive system, the entire working population of the tribe was involved in hunting, cooking and other vital processes. Full employment of people is also characteristic of the slave system. During this period, huge armies of slaves worked on plantations, and free citizens became colonists, warriors, or were engaged in various trades. A similar picture was observed under feudalism.

Everything changed with the emergence of private capitalism. The dominance of market relations at the industrial stage of society's development became the cause of a new economic phenomenon called unemployment. It was then that crowds of people who were not in an employment relationship appeared.

Who is considered unemployed?

The socio-economic phenomenon when the population is not involved in production processes is closely related to the labor market. According to the definition given by the ILO, an unemployed person is considered to be a person who currently does not have a place of work, but is looking for one and is ready to participate in the production process. However, not every citizen can be classified in this category.

Thus, disabled people, elderly people and children do not fit this criterion. In addition, a citizen who has a certain income, but does not want to participate in production processes, is also not considered unemployed.

The essence of the phenomenon

The concept and types of unemployment are terms that invariably accompany the market economic system. This is confirmed by the entire history of the development of capitalist society.

Thus, in the second half of the 18th century, mass protests of the working class began in England. People protested against the use of machines, because the industrial revolution gave birth to a whole army of unnecessary workers. Then the phenomenon continued to gain momentum. This led to the fact that in 1995 a record number of unemployed people were registered on our planet. It amounted to 635 million people.

The essence and types of unemployment, as well as the number of people unemployed in production, depend on the specific period in the development of the economy, which is characterized by certain indicators, such as:

Labor efficiency;
- economic growth rates;
- the degree of compliance of personnel qualifications with the existing demand for them;
- demographic situation;
- employment policy pursued by the state.

According to statistical studies, the number of people unable to find work especially increases during periods when the economic crisis is growing in the country. An example of this is the decline in production that was observed in 1857. During this period in England, unemployment in the metalworking industry was 12%. And in the prosperous year of 1853 - only 2%. A sharp increase in the unemployment rate in 1957 was also observed in the United States. For example, in New York more than 150 thousand people were “superfluous”.

The highest unemployment was recorded during the so-called years. This was the period lasting from 1929 to 1933. Then 15% of the working population living in developed countries was left without a job. For example, in America during these years more than 10 million people received unemployment status.

This negative socio-economic phenomenon is a serious problem in modern society. Thus, an increase in the number of people unemployed in production was observed during the crises of 1973-1975, 1979-1980, and 1982-1983.

The types and levels of unemployment depend on the country in question. For example, if we take data from 1985, then in Spain 20% of the population could not find a job, and in Japan - 2.6%. In the 90s, in European countries (France, England, Germany and Italy) the unemployment rate was 10-12%, in America - from 5 to 6, in Japan - from 2.3 to 3, and in Switzerland - only 1%. Such differences arise due to the differing government policies of countries in the field of macroeconomic regulation. Part of the discrepancy in unemployment rates is due to different definitions of the term.

What causes the problem of “extra” frames?

Unemployment, causes, types, consequences of this negative phenomenon are widely studied by economists. To date, researchers have ambiguously explained the appearance of “extra” personnel. Among the available reasons are:

1. Malthusianism, or excess population.
2. Marxism, that is, the growth of the organic structure of capital.
3. High level of remuneration.
4. Keynesianism, which lies in the lack of aggregate demand.

Neoclassical concept

According to economists who adhere to this theory, the number of workers employed in the production process is directly opposite to the level of remuneration they receive for their work. In other words, employment falls as wages rise. How, then, to eliminate the problem of unemployment? Reduce wages.

Keynesian concept

Economists who adhere to this theory consistently and thoroughly prove that in a market economy, unemployment is not voluntary, but forced. In their opinion, the neoclassical concept can only be confirmed within the sectoral, that is, microeconomic level.

The founder of the theory, Keynes, argued that the volume of employment is directly related to the efficiency of demand for goods. In addition, employment is largely dependent on investment. The growth of such investments invariably affects industries producing consumer goods, which leads to an increase in demand for labor resources.

Types of unemployment

Currently, a negative socio-economic phenomenon, characteristic of all countries, is subject to a certain classification. Main types of unemployment:
- friction;
- cyclic;
- structural.

Depending on the criteria and characteristics, this phenomenon can be obvious and hidden, long-term and natural, institutional, stagnant, seasonal, official and unofficial. The table below reflects the most common types of unemployment well.

Let us consider the types of this phenomenon in more detail.

Frictional unemployment

It occurs when a person resigns of his own free will, when the specialist intends to find a new, more suitable job for him. As a rule, this phenomenon is characterized by a short period of time. A specialist quickly finds a job and is no longer part of the army of people unnecessary for production.

This type of unemployment occurs when changing place of residence, receiving a new education, or while on parental leave. A decrease in the level of this phenomenon may indicate an improvement in the provision of necessary information to job seekers. However, economists argue that frictional unemployment is inevitable. In addition, to some extent it is even desirable, because this phenomenon means that specialists will receive higher incomes, which will allow the state to more rationally distribute labor resources and achieve an increase in the volume of the national product.

Structural unemployment

This phenomenon arises due to the search for the desired vacancy by those specialists who have narrow qualifications. At its core, structural unemployment, examples of which exist in our country, is forced. It arises as a result of transformations in one or another sphere of the national economy, as well as with the development of new, high-tech areas and the reduction of outdated industries.

What are the specific features of Russian structural unemployment? Examples of this phenomenon concern those who, having a secondary specialized or higher education, cannot find a suitable vacancy for themselves. And this happens while the demand for unskilled labor increases.

The inevitability of frictional and structural types of phenomena

The types of unemployment considered and examples of their occurrence give every reason to consider their presence in society to be natural. Such phenomena are considered normal for a dynamically developing state. In other words, such types and forms of unemployment as structural and frictional are classified as natural and irremovable. At the same time, they influence the creation of a long-term stable equilibrium in the labor market. The table below indicates these types of unemployment.

Essentially, both of these phenomena can be called which inevitably exist even with full employment of the population. Moreover, this phenomenon corresponds to potential GNP.

Cyclical unemployment

This negative phenomenon arises as a result of a decline in production in a period of economic development characterized by insufficient investment in the production sector. Cyclical unemployment reaches its peak level during periods of crisis. The minimum significance of this phenomenon is observed during times of production growth. Of course, there are various types and forms of unemployment, but cyclical unemployment is the most painful for the population. It leads to a fall in an individual’s income, and, consequently, to a decrease in his well-being. In addition, the presence of cyclical unemployment in a society indicates that production capacity is not being used to its full extent. And this implies a decrease in tax revenues to the treasury.

The reasons why cyclical fluctuations in employment occur lie in the state going through certain phases of economic development. For example, in Russia, a similar phenomenon arises due to the transition of the national economy to fundamentally new market conditions.

The need to count the unemployed population

Types of unemployment and examples of their manifestations can be very different. Thus, certain forms of this phenomenon are classified based on the need to register the unemployed, which will allow the state to take appropriate measures.

In this case, the following are distinguished:

1. Registered unemployment y, reflecting the number of unemployed people looking for vacancies and registered with employment services opened by the state.
2. Hidden unemployment. The category of such labor resources includes citizens who are employed in the production sector, but are “superfluous” there. They are sent to or offered to work part-time.

Duration of the vacancy search period

Types of unemployment and examples of its manifestation are different depending on the time of existence of this phenomenon. So, such a negative phenomenon happens:
- short-term, when a person cannot find a job within 8 months;
- long-term (from 8 to 18 months);
- stagnant (over 18 months).

Long-term and stagnant types of unemployment pose a particular danger to the population. And examples of this can be taken from everyday life. A specialist who has not worked for a long time loses his professional level and ability to work intensively. In addition, this condition often becomes the cause of social degradation of the individual, which leads him to a group of drunkards or homeless people. It is possible to return such people to professional activities only through long-term individual rehabilitation work.

Unemployment

If a person is given the freedom to choose his type of activity and place of work, at any given moment some workers find themselves in a position “between jobs.” Some leave on their own in search of more interesting or better paid work. There are those who are fired. There are also those who enter the labor market for the first time (this applies primarily to young people). All these varieties are united by the concept of “frictional unemployment.”

It also happens that the demand for certain types of professions decreases sharply. Most often this occurs due to changes in the demand for goods and services and, as a result, the demand for labor. As a result, many people who are unable to quickly master other skills find themselves among the unemployed. For example, many years ago, highly skilled glassblowers were left out of work due to the invention of machines used to make bottles. This type of unemployment is called structural. The number of unemployed also grows in a certain phase of the economic cycle, in conditions of a production crisis. This kind of unemployment is called cyclical. At the same time, unemployment is distributed unevenly among different categories of the working population.

Full employment does not mean absolutely no unemployment. The unemployment rate at full employment is called the natural unemployment rate. It occurs when the number of job seekers equals the number of available places. If the number of job seekers exceeds the available vacancies, there is a shortage of demand and, as a result, unemployment. On the other hand, when there is excess demand, there is a shortage of labor. In such a situation, the unemployment rate is below the natural rate.

Thus, some level of unemployment is inevitable. Some economists and sociologists even view this phenomenon as positive, health-improving and stimulating for the development of the economy as a whole.

Freedom of choice as a personality quality - ability determine your behavior in accordance with your own, responsible desires of today; the ability to choose the right path and make the optimal decision.

The poor peasant committed a crime. He was caught and brought to trial before the ruler. For his act in those lands, the death penalty was imposed, but the ruler invited him to choose his own fate: either to be hanged, or to enter a large, black, scary steel door. The criminal thought a little and chose the gallows. When they put a noose around his neck, he suddenly turned to the ruler: “The thought haunts me: what’s there, behind that door?” The ruler was surprised at the peasant’s audacity, but laughed: “Well, you see, this is a funny thing.” I offer this choice to everyone - and everyone chooses the gallows. - What’s behind the door? - the criminal asks. “I won’t tell anyone anyway,” he added, smiling wryly and pointing to the noose. After a pause, the king answered: “There is freedom there.” But people are so afraid of the unknown that they prefer a rope to it.

Unlike matter, any living creature has relative freedom. How much freedom does a sofa have? He won’t be able to run away from you, like the dishes in Sergei Mikhalkov’s fable “Fedorino’s Mountain.” They sat on it, that’s it, no freedom. No choice. Try sitting on a tiger, a snake, or a passenger on a bus. Everyone will start to resist. Everyone will make a physical remark.

Air Rand in his novel Atlas Shrugged writes: “We are given the opportunity to choose, but we are not given the opportunity to avoid choice.”

Freedom of choice is impossible without responsibility. Freedom says: “You made a choice voluntarily, remember that immediately after this comes responsibility.” Freedom of choice and responsibility are inseparable. These are two boots - a pair. We say freedom - we mean responsibility, we say responsibility - he realizes that it arose on the basis of freedom of choice.

For example, a person gets married. No one took him to the registry office with a machine gun, no one put him into the marriage bed with a Druzhba chainsaw. Everything was voluntary, by mutual agreement, by free choice. The choice has been made, the Rubicon has been crossed. Now everyone has a responsibility corresponding to male and female nature. A man is already responsible for the safety of each family member, for its material support, for the emotional protection of a woman, for the spiritual development of his wife and children.

In a word, the consequence of freedom of choice is always responsibility. She follows him like a shadow. Therefore, the sofa, like matter, has no karma. A brick that falls on our head does not receive any karma, that is, it is not responsible for the consequences. No one condemned the bullet, ax or knife with which the man was killed. They had no choice. Responsibility is borne by the one who, having made a choice for himself, used them.

In the TV series Sons of Anarchy, the hero says: “The days will come when you will have to make decisions that will affect the lives of everyone you love.” The choice you make will change you forever. As you grow up, you will understand what it means to be a man. This is not about gaining respect or power. This means being responsible for your actions. Children think about themselves, following their selfish desires. Men think about others and act based on their needs.

Human power lies in the ability to make free choices. The ability to use freedom of choice is intelligence, the inability to make the right choice is stupidity. Yuri Bondyrev in “Choice” writes: “All life is an endless choice. Every day - from choosing porridge and a tie in the morning to choosing the whole evening - which woman to meet, where to go, how to kill the damned time. Everything happens after a choice: love, war, murder. In recent years, I have often wondered what controls our choices in life? But who knows if there is a choice after death? Hell? Paradise? Dream? What will be there beyond the edge?

There is an excellent parable about freedom of choice: “Lord, remove this man from my path in life, for he makes me unhappy,” the man prayed.

It’s not his fault, but your feelings,” the Lord answered. - I gave everyone free will. He is free to choose what to do, just like you. And you are free to choose how to relate to what is happening. You can give up anger and condemnation, and by giving them to me, you can receive love, forgiveness and happiness in return. But know, if suddenly you get tired of your happiness and you again want to condemn, blame, be offended and suffer, then you can always return your grievances, but at the same time my peace, love and happiness will leave you. You choose what is more important to you.

From a large selection, the coveted mind can inadvertently go crazy. The larger the offer, the more difficult it is to make a choice. A climber comes into a small store in a mountain village and asks: “Are the gingerbreads fresh?” - Fresh. - What about waffles? - Better take some gingerbread. In a large supermarket it is more difficult to make a choice.

Freedom of choice is an excellent means of purifying and developing the mind. While choosing, we notice some internal struggle in our consciousness. The voice of the mind says: “I like it.” The voice of reason objects: “I don’t like much.” It's harmful, expensive and I don't need it at all. In a word, there is a motivation for choice. Nikolai Aossky writes: “In the event of a clash of motives, the choice is always made in the direction of the strongest motive.”

In other words, when choosing, there is a struggle between feelings, mind and reason. Doubts arise, and a reasonable person says to himself: “We need to consult a professional.” This is already development, the desire for complete knowledge. Choice requires taking full advantage of available knowledge. The choice of a reasonable person is made from the standpoint of whether it is right or wrong, useful or harmful, necessary or not necessary, pure or dirty, moral or immoral. The mind understands that free choice is followed by responsibility, so it carefully chooses and, therefore, develops and improves.

Freedom of choice - there is an understanding that behind the external choice there is an internal growth or decline of the individual. For example, a married man finds himself in a SV with a woman who non-verbally indicates that she doesn’t mind having sex with him. Doesn't force him to have sex. There is freedom of choice. You can run into a clonidine addict or become infected with a sexually transmitted disease. Then infect your wife and stand smiling guiltily in front of the venereologist.

The husband returns from a business trip and says to his wife: “Here we are!” - Who are we? – Me and pubic lice.

In a word, without internal growth or decline you cannot make an external choice. There is only one road in life - either up or down. The choice is limited, but the main thing is that it is there. When making a choice, a reasonable person strives to understand WHY he is doing it. If you know why, you can answer the question “How should I do this.” Freedom of choice presupposes clarity in the “Why and how” connection.

A fool is preoccupied with the question “How?”, that’s why everything turns out how he does. He doesn’t think why I’m doing this, why. Wisdom is to think and understand first about “why”, and only then about “how”. With this approach, self-development and self-awareness occur, a person grows personally, and his mind develops.

Philosopher Vyacheslav Ruzov says that to make the right choice, you need to understand why. If we understand why, we understand how. If we don’t understand why, how, it’s also not possible. Therefore, if we understand why we live, then it becomes clear how we should live. Everything is very simple, no questions arise, nothing to argue about. The world is complex and mysterious, but if we understand why, it’s immediately clear how.

Freedom of choice - there is an opportunity to renounce our bad, evil desires. A person's desire is the greatest force that influences his destiny. Desires that bring happiness to those around us make us happy. A desire that brings suffering to those around us makes us unhappy. If a person sets high life goals for himself, his desires are directly related to the implementation of these goals. Therefore, freedom of choice means that a person learns to desire what corresponds to his main life goals.

- Master, what is freedom of choice? - This is when you choose the lesser of two evils.

Freedom of choice is the ability to choose the right path and make the optimal decision. People under the influence of the energy of passion and especially ignorance understand freedom of choice in the context that I move what I want, where I want, I trample there, whatever goes to my head, that’s what I have to do. In a word, the one who indulges his bad desires is free: “I am a free person, so go for a walk, you flaw, from a ruble and above.” I can drink, smoke, have sex, walk naked in public places, eat whatever I want and to my heart's content.

Man is free to do stupid things. You just have to know that you will have to suffer for them. Life is a boomerang. For everything stupid and base you will have to pay with suffering. Therefore, freedom of choice consists in tearing, like Bobik a rag, your bad desires, your swollen “I want”, usually coming from the past, and affirming what the mind wants now. It is the mind, not the feelings and the changeable mind.

A person thinks that desires have come to him now and this is his freedom of choice. Misconception. Desires mainly come from the past and force a person to turn into an animal: drink, walk, debauch, engage in all sorts of obscenities. In other words, keep doing stupid things. A reasonable person makes a choice between the desires of the past and the reasonable desires of today.

Happy is the person who realized that his freedom of choice, his happiness lies in the fight against his past desires. Whoever conquers his past desires becomes happy and free, because he has the right to live as he should, as his soul, conscience and mind advise him. A slave to his past desires deprives himself of freedom of choice. Freedom of choice lies within, not without. Due to bad karma, stupid desires come to us. You need to give them a turn from the gate, and they will leave without a hitch.

How long does it take to choose? Sometimes there is only one moment between the situation that has arisen and the reaction to it. This is enough to become a coward, a traitor, a dishonest person. And you can, by making the right choice, become even more convinced that you are a noble and decent person.

Every moment has its own reason,

Its own bells, its own mark.

Moments are given away - shame on anyone,

For some - disgrace, and for others - immortality!

In other words, you need to emerge from any negative circumstances nobly, with dignity and honor, with a human face, as if God is looking at you at the moment when you make a choice. A noble person always makes a choice in unison with his conscience.

We need to be grateful to God for giving us a period of time, even a moment, during which we can try to make the right choice. The reasonable one chooses, the unreasonable one surrenders to the power of insatiable feelings and a lustful mind. Reasonableness is the ability to apply synthesized knowledge in the space between the stimulus and the reaction, while exhibiting real action.

For example, a tram boor troubles passengers. How to proceed. The irritant is boorish. There is time to choose how to behave. You can try to be rude to him, punch him in the impudent, nasty face, demand to stop the tram and urge passengers to jointly make some physical comments to the boor and give him a kick to speed up when flying out the door, try to reassure him, ignore him, and much more. In a word, there is always freedom of choice, like the space between the occurrence of an irritating factor and the reaction to it. In a word, man received God's greatest gift - time to choose.

Almost everything can be taken away from a person except freedom of choice. Who, for example, can take away a person’s freedom, how to react to the behavior of a scoundrel or to the most unfavorable situation? Austrian psychologist Viktor Frankl is the author of the book “Say Yes to Life.” Psychologist in a concentration camp,” being a Jew, went through all the horrors of fascist concentration camps from the beginning of the war and with his life proved even to the amazed executioners that it is possible, without humiliation, to accept life in its most terrible forms. Psychological and physiological experiments were performed on him. A world-famous scientist had to stand naked on the cold cement floor of a torture chamber in the beams of a spotlight. Hungry, exhausted, he did not feel humiliated because he knew that “my ability to respond to this and want something, they cannot take away from me.”

He later recalled: “So, I remember how one morning I walked out of the camp, no longer able to endure hunger, cold and pain in my foot, swollen from dropsy, frostbitten and festering. My situation seemed hopeless to me. Then I imagined myself standing at a lectern in a large, beautiful, warm and bright lecture hall in front of an interested audience, giving a lecture on “Group Psychotherapeutic Experiences in a Concentration Camp” and talking about everything I had been through. Believe me, at that moment I could not hope that the day would come when I would actually have the opportunity to give such a lecture.

Frankl organized an information service in the concentration camp, and when anyone expressed suicidal thoughts or showed a real intention to commit suicide, he was immediately informed about it: “What was to be done? We had to awaken the will to live, to continue existing, to survive imprisonment. But in each case, the courage to live or the weariness of life depended solely on whether the person had faith in the meaning of life, in his life. The motto of all the psychotherapeutic work carried out in the concentration camp can be the words of Nietzsche: “He who knows the “why” of living will overcome almost any “how”.”

Parable on topic.

Once upon a time there lived one Teacher. This strange man remained happy all his life, the smile never left his face for a second! His whole life seemed to be filled with the aroma of a holiday... And even on his deathbed, he continued to joke and laugh cheerfully. He seemed to be enjoying the coming of death! His students sat around - puzzled, confused - and perplexed. And finally, one of them could not stand it and asked: - Teacher, why are you laughing? You've laughed all your life. But we never dared to ask you how you manage to do this. And now we are completely confused. Dying, you continue to laugh! But what's so funny about that?! And the old man answered: “Many years ago I came to my Teacher.” I was young and stupid then, just like you are now. I was only seventeen years old, and I was already a sufferer - exhausted and embittered by life. My Teacher was seventy then, and he laughed just like that, for no reason. I asked him: “How do you do this?” And he replied: “I am free in my choice. And this is my choice. Every morning when I open my eyes, I ask myself: what will you choose today - bliss or suffering? And so it turns out that since then, I choose bliss every morning. But it’s so natural!

Petr Kovalev 2015

Unemployment - This is a phenomenon organically connected with the labor market. According to the definition of the International Labor Organization, an unemployed person is anyone who is currently unemployed, is looking for work and is ready to start work. According to Russian legislation, able-bodied citizens who do not have work or income, are registered with the employment service in order to find suitable work, are looking for work and are ready to start work are recognized as unemployed. Officially unemployed are considered able-bodied citizens of working age (determined by law), permanently residing in the territory of a given state, not having a paid job, not engaged in entrepreneurial activities, not studying in full-time educational institutions or not undergoing military service and registered at the labor exchange (in state employment service).

Modern economists view unemployment as a natural and integral part of a market economy. In this regard, much attention is paid to the analysis of types of unemployment. The criterion for distinguishing types of unemployment, as a rule, is the cause of its occurrence and duration, and the main types of unemployment are considered structural, frictional and cyclical (opportunistic).

Over time, important changes occur in the structure of consumer demand, which, in turn, change the structure of overall demand for workers. New, more modern goods and services are being created in the country, requiring the introduction of advanced technologies; accordingly, a structural restructuring of production is being carried out with the reduction of old and the development of new economic facilities. In this regard, personnel are recruited and trained, and the qualifications of existing employees are upgraded, and some employees may be released.

The released personnel cannot immediately solve their problems in the labor market, and some of them end up among the unemployed. This happens because people tend to be slow to respond to the emergence of new professions, resulting in the structure of labor supply not matching the structure of jobs and the fact that some workers do not have the skills that employers need, and these citizens become unemployed. This type of unemployment is called structural. In this situation, the initiator of dismissal is the employer. An example is the widespread introduction of personal electronic equipment, computers, which replaced and freed up a large number of junior service personnel from typists, bookkeepers, clerks and some other professions.

A number of Western economists identify a special type of structural unemployment - unemployment waiting , which arises as a result of significant differences in wage levels at different enterprises. Thus, some workers, having left some enterprises, consciously expect the emergence of vacant jobs in their profession in other companies, with higher wages. If a person is given the freedom to choose the type of activity and place of work, then at any given moment some workers find themselves in a position where they have already left their previous job, but have not yet started a new one. Some of them are voluntarily changing their place of work, others are looking for work for the first time, and others have completed their seasonal work. Some people looking for a suitable job find a job, others temporarily leave their jobs, but, in general, this type of unemployment remains. In this case, the labor market functions clumsily, as if “creakingly”, trying to match the quantity and quality of workers and available jobs. This kind of unemployment is called frictional .

Since the initiative to quit in this case comes from the person himself, frictional unemployment is considered inevitable and, as some economists argue, desirable, since many workers who voluntarily remain unemployed move from low-paid, ineffective work to higher-paid and productive work, and this, in turn, means an increase in the well-being of citizens and a more rational distribution of resources for labor. Essentially, frictional unemployment is voluntary, and the resulting temporary unemployment of a citizen is not of a forced nature. In industrialized countries, frictional unemployment affects 2-3% of the economically active population. Frictional unemployment is considered inevitable, as it is caused by the natural course of life. We must keep in mind a certain difference between structural and frictional unemployment. Thus, the “frictional” unemployed have all the skills to find a job, while the “structural” unemployed need mandatory additional training or retraining. The combination of structural and frictional unemployment determines, according to most economists, the level of natural unemployment. Frictional unemployment is the result of the dynamism of the labor market, and structural unemployment arises due to a territorial or professional mismatch between supply and demand in the labor market. Thus, the level of natural unemployment is that socially minimum level, below which it is impossible to fall and which corresponds to the concept of full employment. At the same time, full employment is understood not as universal employment, but as employment that does not exclude a certain natural level of unemployment.

Changes in the situation on the market for goods and services, increased competition between commodity producers lead to the fact that some industries reduce or even stop production, while laying off some workers and giving rise to serious problems in the labor market. In an economic recession, when the aggregate demand for goods and services decreases, employment declines, and unemployment rises, a significant army of unemployed people appears, and this kind of unemployment is called opportunistic or cyclical . To smooth out the negative consequences of this type of unemployment, it is necessary to develop and adopt special programs to ensure employment, subsidized by the state. According to Western experts, during periods of economic ups and downs, the value of cyclical unemployment can fluctuate from 0 to 8-10 percent or more, thereby significantly increasing the overall unemployment rate. The absence of cyclical unemployment in a country determines the natural rate of unemployment. Employment in this case is defined as full-time. Another type of unemployment is seasonal unemployment, which is generated by the temporary nature of certain types of activities and the functioning of economic sectors. These include agricultural work, fishing, berry picking, timber rafting, hunting, partially construction and some other activities. In this case, individual citizens and even entire enterprises can work intensively for several weeks or months a year, sharply reducing their activities the rest of the time. During the period of intense work, there is a massive recruitment of personnel, and during the period of curtailment of work, there are mass layoffs. This type of unemployment corresponds to cyclical unemployment in some characteristics, and frictional unemployment in others, since it is voluntary. Seasonal unemployment can be forecast with a high degree of accuracy because it repeats itself from year to year and, accordingly, it is possible to prepare to deal with the problems caused by it. One of the types of unemployment is partial unemployment, which arises as a result of a decrease in demand for the company's products. In this case, two options for the entrepreneur’s behavior are possible: either he retains the opportunity for part of the staff to work full time and fires the other part, or without dismissal he gives everyone the opportunity to work part-time, which leads to partial unemployment.

Analysis of economic indicators makes it possible to estimate the costs of unemployment. Thus, it is believed that for every increase in real output by 2%, the unemployment rate tends to decrease by 1%, and vice versa.

Another type of unemployment is stagnant unemployment.

It characterizes that part of the population that is constantly unemployed or relies on odd jobs. This part of the people, having lost their legal source of existence, as a rule, joins the ranks of the criminal world.

Based on the need to take into account the unemployed and take appropriate government measures to provide work to everyone, they distinguish: registered unemployment, which reflects the number of unemployed citizens looking for work, ready to start work and registered with the state employment service; hidden unemployment, which includes workers employed in production, but in reality being “superfluous”. They, as a rule, either work part-time or a week through no fault of their own, or are sent on administrative leave. There is also the so-called survey unemployment - an estimated value characterizing the real situation in the labor market based on periodic special surveys of the working population.

In accordance with the methodology of the Federal Employment Service of Russia, prepared taking into account international standards, the unemployment rate is defined as the ratio of the unemployed officially registered in the state employment service to the economically active population, expressed as a percentage. The number is determined by the employment service for a certain period (month, quarter, half-year and year), the denominator is an indicator presented by the bodies of the State Committee on Statistics of Russia on the basis of a household survey conducted since 1992 on employment problems.

Causes of unemployment

Economic causes of unemployment include:

A). The high price of labor (wages) demanded by its seller or trade union.

The behavior of the buyer (employer) in the labor market is determined in these conditions by the correlation of the costs of purchasing labor and the income that he will receive from its use for a certain period of time with the costs that he will incur to purchase a machine that replaces labor and that result , which this car will bring him. If such a comparison is in favor of the machine, then the entrepreneur will refuse to purchase labor power and give preference to the machine. A person's labor power will be unsold, and he himself will find himself unemployed. Scientific and technological progress and an increase in the technical structure of production are one of the reasons for the increase in unemployment in modern conditions.

b). Low price of labor (wages), which is set by the buyer (employer)

In this case, the seller (hired worker) refuses to sell his labor for next to nothing and is looking for another buyer. For a certain time, he may remain unemployed and be classified as unemployed.

V). Lack of cost and, accordingly, the price of labor.

There are always people in society who cannot be involved in the production process due to their lack of labor as such or the presence of labor of such low quality that the buyer (employer) does not want to purchase it. These are tramps, declassed elements, disabled people, etc. This category of citizens, as a rule, forever loses their job and hope of finding it and falls into the category of stagnant unemployed.

Thus, the main cause of unemployment is imbalance in the labor market. This imbalance is especially intensified during periods of economic downturns, wars, natural disasters, etc.

Unemployment is an integral part of a market economy. The labor reserve within the natural norm is one of the factors of its effective functioning.

Consequences of unemployment

Unemployment has serious economic and social costs. One of the main negative consequences of unemployment is the non-working state of able-bodied citizens and, accordingly, the output of products. If the economy is unable to meet the job needs of everyone who is willing and able to work, who is looking for work and ready to start work, who is willing and able to work, who is looking for work and ready to start work, then the potential for the production of goods and services. Consequently, unemployment prevents society from developing and moving forward based on its potential. Ultimately, this is seen as a decrease in the rate of economic growth and a lag in the increase in the gross national product. The underutilization of society's production capabilities is predictable. Thus, some economists believe that an excess of 1 percent in employment leads to a lag of the real volume of gross national product by 2.5 percent from potential GNP. In addition to purely economic costs, one cannot discount the significant social and moral consequences of unemployment, its negative impact on social values ​​and the vital interests of citizens. Unemployment, no matter what level it is measured, is always a tragedy for those who do not have a job and cannot obtain a legal source of livelihood. Moreover, its consequences go far beyond material wealth. Prolonged inactivity leads to loss of qualifications, which ultimately kills the hope of finding a job in the specialty. The loss of a source of livelihood and a miserable existence lead to a decline in moral principles, loss of self-esteem, family breakdown, etc. Researchers are finding a direct link between increases in suicide, homicide, mental illness, mortality from cardiovascular disease and high unemployment. Finally, history convincingly shows that mass unemployment leads to rapid, sometimes very violent, social and political change. That is why the state should not rely on the self-regulating role of the market in employment matters, but should actively intervene in this process.

Frictional unemployment

Economists use the term frictional unemployment (related to finding or waiting for work) to refer to workers who are looking for work or waiting to get work in the near future.

The definition of “frictional” accurately reflects the essence of the phenomenon: the labor market functions sluggishly, without bringing the number of jobs and workers into line.

Frictional unemployment is associated with the natural constant movement of the population. Since a person is given the freedom to choose his type of activity and place of work, he uses this right. Some voluntarily change jobs, others are looking for a new job due to layoffs. Some are losing temporary jobs, seasonal jobs, etc. Some people from this category find employment, while others continue to look for work. Frictional unemployment is considered inevitable and desirable because the initiative to quit comes from the person himself and many workers, when fired, move from low-paying, unproductive work to higher-paying and more productive work. This means higher incomes for workers and a more rational distribution of labor resources.

Structural unemployment

Frictional unemployment imperceptibly moves into the second category, which is called structural unemployment. Economists use this term to mean "composite." Structural unemployment characterizes the inability to find employment due to differences in the structure of labor demand and supply. Its cause is the economic processes of the functioning of the market. Over time, important changes occur in the structure of consumer demand and in technology, which in turn change the structure of overall labor demand.

Due to such changes, the demand for some types of professions decreases or ceases altogether. Demand for other professions, including new ones that previously did not exist, is increasing. Unemployment occurs because the labor force is slow to respond and its structure does not fully correspond to the new job structure. As a result, it turns out that some workers do not have skills that can be quickly sold; their skills and experience have become obsolete and unnecessary due to changes in technology and the nature of consumer demand. In addition, the geographic distribution of jobs is constantly changing.

Cyclical unemployment

Cyclical unemployment refers to unemployment caused by a recession, that is, that phase of the economic cycle that is characterized by insufficient total, or aggregate, spending. Employers, due to a decrease in demand for their products, are forced to reduce the number of employees, i.e. employment is declining and unemployment is rising. For this reason, cyclical unemployment is sometimes called demand-side unemployment.

Hidden unemployment

Hidden unemployment is characterized by a situation in society when a worker is forced to agree to work under conditions of part-time employment (less than a full day, week or month). This type of unemployment is also associated with the presence of an unemployed population in society due to economic instability, when the demand for labor is less than supply. Hidden unemployment is divided into official and unofficial. Official hidden unemployment includes persons registered by statistics who are on administrative leave at the initiative of the administration, as well as persons forced to work part-time. Unofficial hidden unemployment should include the excess internal number of workers and those who are looking for work on their own.

Voluntary unemployment

Voluntary unemployment means that the employee does not want to work for the salary offered to him or in the specialty offered to him at the enterprise, waiting for a more suitable job.

Involuntary unemployment

Involuntary unemployment means any type of unemployment other than voluntary. This type of unemployment characterizes a situation where the enterprise, in accordance with the collective agreement, has established a fixed salary for a certain period of time, which does not suit the employee. Involuntary unemployment may occur while awaiting wage revisions.

At the same time, it is customary to highlight types of unemployment relative to its duration in time. There are:

1. long-term unemployment, which is observed when there is no work for 4-8 months. Such unemployment is characterized by the beginning of worker deskilling, the appearance of self-doubt, and reluctance to look for work on their own;

2. dlong-term unemployment lasting 8-18 months. Under these conditions, the employee begins to experience general deskilling, loss of labor skills and the ability to work intensively for the required time;

3. stagnant unemployment for more than 18 months. Under these conditions, degradation of human labor potential occurs. To restore a person’s previous attitude to work, an individual approach is necessary.

In addition to the above, a distinction is made between unemployment among the most vulnerable segments of the population, such as women, youth, older people, disabled people, migrants, as well as seasonal unemployment.

Full employment does not mean absolutely no unemployment.

Economists consider frictional and structural unemployment to be completely inevitable: therefore, full employment is defined as employment of less than 100% of the labor force.

More precisely, the full employment unemployment rate is equal to the sum of the frictional and structural unemployment rates. In other words, the full employment unemployment rate is achieved when cyclical unemployment is zero.

The full employment unemployment rate is also called natural rate of unemployment.