The role of active operations for “any” commercial bank is very great. Active operations ensure the profitability and liquidity of the bank, i.e. allow you to achieve two main goals of the activities of commercial banks. Active operations are also of great economic importance; It is with the help of active operations that banks can direct the funds released in the process of economic activity to those participants in economic turnover who need capital, ensuring the flow of capital into the most promising sectors of the economy, promoting the growth of industrial investments, the introduction of innovations, restructuring and stable growth of industrial production, expansion of housing construction. Bank loans to the population play a major social role. There is a certain relationship between the profitability and riskiness of assets and their liquidity. The riskier an asset is, the more income it can bring to the bank (profitability serves as a payment for risk) and the lower its level of liquidity (a risky asset is more difficult to sell). The riskiest assets are usually both the highest yielding and the least liquid.

We will give a classification of assets according to such qualities as profitability, liquidity, riskiness.

According to the degree of profitability, all assets are divided into two groups:

* income-generating (so-called working), for example, bank loans, a significant part of investments in securities;

* not generating income (so-called non-working); for example, these include: cash; balances of funds in correspondent and reserve accounts with the central bank; investments in bank fixed assets: buildings, equipment.

From a liquidity point of view, three groups of assets are distinguished.

1. Highly liquid assets. They can be immediately used to pay off withdrawn deposits or satisfy loan applications, since they are in cash or can be easily and quickly transferred into it. This includes cash on hand, funds in correspondent and reserve accounts with the central bank, and funds in correspondent accounts with other commercial banks.

2. Liquid assets are assets with an average degree of liquidity. They can be converted into cash with little delay and little risk of loss. These include demand loans and short-term loans, easily marketable bills and other short-term securities, primarily government ones.

3. Low-liquidity (and even illiquid, hopeless) assets are those assets whose probability of being converted into cash is very small or even zero. These are the bank's long-term loans, its investments in long-term securities, hard-to-sell buildings, structures, and long-overdue debts.

Up to 80% of banking assets are accounted for by credit operations and investments in securities. Revenues from these operations serve as the main sources of bank profits.

Credit operations include lending operations and operations for placing deposits in other banks (active deposit operations). Loan operations are the provision of funds by a bank on the basis of a loan agreement on the terms of repayment, payment, and urgency. These operations bring banks, as a rule, the bulk of interest income.

Bank lending operations can be classified according to the following criteria: by economic content and purpose, by category of borrowers, by security, by terms and methods of repayment, by the form of loan issuance.

* joint-stock companies and private enterprises (industrial, commercial, public utilities, agricultural, brokerage);

* credit and financial institutions (and above all banks);

* to the population;

* government and local authorities. Bank loans can be unsecured (blank) or secured. The loan can be secured by a pledge of shares, bonds, bills of exchange and documents of title (warrant - warehouse certificate confirming the presence of goods in a warehouse; railway waybill; bill of lading - certificate of acceptance of cargo for sea transportation, etc.), accounts receivable, mortgages for a car or other type of movable property or real estate. A loan secured by real estate is called a mortgage. Securing a loan can also be a surety or guarantee - an agreement with a unilateral written obligation of the guarantor or guarantor to the bank to repay the loan in the event of non-payment by the borrower or insurance of the risk of non-repayment of the loan by an insurance company.

According to the repayment period, loans are divided into demand loans (on-call), the repayment of which the bank can demand at any time, and urgent ones. The latter are divided into short-term (from one day to one year), medium-term (from a year to three to five years) and long-term - for longer periods. The terms of medium- and long-term loans vary from country to country.

Bank loans can be repaid in two ways. In the first case, the entire principal debt on the loan (excluding interest) must be repaid on one final date in a lump sum. The second repayment method is in installments. The loan amount is written off in installments throughout the term of the loan agreement. Payments to repay the principal amount of the debt are made, as a rule, in equal parts periodically (monthly, quarterly, semi-annually or annually). The second repayment method is usually applied to medium- and long-term loans. Interest on the loan can also be paid in a lump sum upon expiration of the loan term or in equal installments over the life of the loan.

A classic example of an active-passive account is a current account. The loan provided on this account is called a current loan. After concluding an agreement on opening a current account, the current account is closed and all transactions are carried out on the current account. Interest on contract credit accrues periodically on a balance basis, usually quarterly. Contract credit is widely used in Germany, Belgium, Holland, and Italy.

The bank's active operations with securities include four main types.

1. Investments in securities purchased for resale in order to obtain exchange rate profit (the difference between the purchase rate and the sale rate). These securities are stored in the bank's portfolio for a short time.

2. Purchasing securities in order to receive income in the form of interest (on bonds, bills, certificates of deposit) and dividends (on shares), as well as participation in the management of an enterprise. Such securities are stored in the bank's portfolio for a long time (usually more than a year) and are called bank investments.

3. Investments in securities purchased through repo transactions. By purchasing such securities, the bank simultaneously undertakes the obligation to resell them after a certain period at a fixed rate. In other words, the bank purchases securities on the terms of their resale.

4. Accounting operations. These are mainly transactions with bills of exchange. Bill discounting is the purchase of a bill of exchange by a bank (with the transfer of a bill of exchange to the bank by endorsement). By purchasing a bill of exchange from the holder of the bill, the bank receives the right to receive money on the bill upon expiration of its term. For the fact that the bank advances the drawer, giving him money immediately, although the maturity date of the bill comes, for example, in a month, the bank charges the discount interest, or discount, from the drawer who presented the bill for accounting. The discount is equal to the difference between the amount indicated on the bill and the amount paid by the bank when discounting the bill. Upon expiration of the bill, the bank presents it to the debtor for redemption (see Fig. 9.3). The meaning of this operation for the bank is to receive discount interest, and for the holder who presented the bill for accounting, to receive money on the bill before its maturity date.

There is a close relationship between passive and active operations of a commercial bank. First of all, the size and structure of active operations that ensure the receipt of income are largely determined by the resources available to banks. In this sense, passive operations that form the bank’s resource base are primary in relation to active ones. When providing loans and purchasing securities, banks are forced to constantly monitor the status of liabilities and monitor the timing of payments on obligations to depositors. If there are not enough resources, the bank has to refuse lucrative offers and sell high-yield securities. At the same time, a significant part of bank deposits arises on the basis of active operations when providing loans in non-cash form. The relationship between passive and active operations is also manifested in the fact that bank profit depends on the bank margin, i.e. the difference between the price of banking resources and the profitability of active operations.

For successful operations, the bank must ensure coordination of passive and active operations: on the one hand, avoid a significant discrepancy between the terms of liabilities and assets, for example, issuing long-term loans at the expense of short-term deposits; and on the other hand, do not immobilize short-term resources for a long period in an amount significantly exceeding the stable balance of funds in bank accounts sufficient for regular payments.

There is also a relationship between certain types of liabilities and assets. Thus, opening a bank account for a large client is accompanied by the emergence of close regular ties between the client and the bank. In order not to lose a client, the bank provides him with significant loans, invests in his securities, provides him with a variety of expense services, and performs commission transactions.

SETELEM BANK<#"783569.files/image003.gif">Rice. 3 Currency structure of loans

The growth of overdue debt in the portfolio of loans to individuals has continued since the beginning of the year (4.4% at the beginning of 2013, 4.9% at the end of the year), stabilizing only in the 4th quarter. It is worth paying attention to the market leaders - for example, Home Credit, whose share of overdue debt increased by 3.5% - from 8.8% to 14.2%. The situation has worsened slightly even at Tinkoff Bank, which is actively selling overdue loans. Credit systems" - growth from 5.1% to 6.3%. The increase in the share of overdue debt is precisely caused by the slowdown in loan portfolio growth, while problem loans continue to accumulate on banks’ balance sheets.

Rice. 4 Share of overdue loans for individuals

Foreign currency loans to individuals continue to be more problematic for banks than ruble loans - the share of overdue debt on them is 3 times higher. According to a review of the mortgage lending market released by the Bank of Russia, amounting to about 2.2 trillion. rub. almost a third of the total portfolio of loans to individuals) in the portfolio of mortgage loans, the situation is even more contrasting - more than 12% of foreign currency mortgage loans are overdue, while of ruble loans - just over 1%.

Rice. 5 Share of overdue loans to individuals

Chapter 3. Active operations of banks with securities

Banks' active operations with securities represent their investment activities, in which banks act as investors by purchasing securities or acquiring rights to joint business activities. Such securities include: common and preferred shares, bonds, government debt obligations (bonds), bills, etc. Active transactions with bills of exchange include discounting bills, issuing bill loans, etc. Transactions with stock securities are transactions with securities listed on the stock exchange.

The bank's active operations with securities include:

) investments in securities purchased for resale for the purpose of exchange rate profit (the difference between the purchase rate and the sale rate). These securities are stored in the bank's portfolio for a short time;

) purchase of securities to receive income in the form of interest (on bonds, bills, certificates of deposit) and dividends (on shares), as well as participation in the management of an enterprise. Such securities are stored in the bank’s portfolio for a long time (usually more than a year) and are called “bank investments”;

) investments in securities purchased through repo transactions. By purchasing such securities, the bank simultaneously undertakes the obligation to resell them after a certain period at a fixed rate. In other words, the bank purchases securities on the terms of their resale;

) accounting transactions are primarily transactions with bills of exchange. Accounting for a bill of exchange is the purchase of a bill of exchange by a bank (with the transfer of the bill of exchange to the bank under an endorsement - a transfer note). By purchasing a bill of exchange from the holder of the bill, the bank acquires the right to receive money on the bill upon expiration of its term. For the fact that the bank advances the drawer, giving him money immediately, although the maturity date of the bill comes, for example, in a month, the bank charges the discount interest, or discount, from the drawer who presented the bill for accounting. The discount is equal to the difference between the amount indicated on the bill and the amount paid by the bank when discounting the bill. Upon expiration of the bill, the bank presents it to the debtor for redemption. The meaning of this operation for the bank is to receive discount interest, and for the holder who presented the bill for accounting - to receive money on the bill before its maturity date.

When carrying out transactions with securities, the bank pursues the following main goals:

(primary goal). The yield of securities depends on their maturity date. The shorter the period, the more stable the value of the security, therefore it is preferable to invest in short-term securities than in long-term ones;

Investments in highly liquid securities allow the bank, if necessary, to easily sell them to make payments through a correspondent account.

To study the dynamics of active transactions with securities, Table 5 is presented.

Balance sheet item, thousand rubles.				Change over period
Bonds
Corporate
Corporate non-residents
Revaluation
Corporate
Reserves for possible losses
Residents
Reserves for possible losses

Table 7 Dynamics of active transactions with securities of Investkapitalbank

There are three main types of risk inherent in banking investments:

as a result of changes in the financial capabilities of the issuer of a security to fulfill its payment obligations;

caused by unforeseen circumstances in the securities market or in the economy as a whole;

the possibility of a decline in the price of securities as a result of market interest rates.

Reducing investment risk is achieved, first of all, by diversifying the securities portfolio, i.e. the presence in the portfolio of various types of securities (by quality, maturity, territorial distribution, type of obligation, issuer). For strategic and tactical management of investment activities, special fund departments are created in the bank’s structure, which develop the main goals of investment policy, the composition and structure of investments, a mechanism for adjusting the composition of the portfolio, the procedure for delivery, storage, an insurance mechanism, calculate potential profits, etc.

Another important method of reducing the risk of transactions with securities is to comply with the central bank’s requirement to form sufficient reserves for the depreciation of securities.

The bank's total investments are divided into direct and portfolio. Direct investment is the direct investment of funds in production, the acquisition of real assets. Portfolio investments are carried out in the form of purchasing securities or providing funds on a long-term loan in national or foreign currency. For strategic and tactical investment management, the bank develops a document on the main directions of investment policy, which includes the following provisions: main goals, limits, responsibility of managers and executives, composition and structure of investments, requirements for diversifying the structure of the investment portfolio, insurance mechanism, calculation of potential profits and losses, list of bank services for investment services and others.

The bank's active operations also include currency dealing. Conducting foreign exchange transactions in money markets is one of the most complex and extremely specific types of banking activities, which is carried out by highly qualified specialists - dealers.

Conclusion

A regional commercial bank from the Republic of Bashkortostan, InvestCapitalBank (OJSC Investment Capital Bank) was organized in 1993 to serve agricultural enterprises. The bank operates primarily in the Volga Federal District. The client base includes more than 10 thousand corporate clients.

Today, as a universal credit organization, the bank provides a wide range of banking products for corporate and private clients: deposit and cash management services, all types of lending, transactions with bills, etc.

Today, Investkapitalbank has an extensive office network: 44 additional offices in Ufa and major cities of Bashkortostan, and 8 offices are located in Kazan, Perm and Tyumen. The bank's authorized capital is 350.6 million Russian rubles. The bank's assets exceed 15.7 billion rubles. In terms of assets, Investkapitalbank belongs to the group of medium-sized financial and credit institutions. The bank ranks first in the region in terms of capital and volume of transactions.

The bank's main source of income is commercial (more than 36% of assets) and consumer loans (32.5%). The basis of the resource base is made up of deposits of individuals (about 59%) and funds of enterprises and organizations (at least 26%). The bank shows very low activity in the interbank loan market (the volumes of issued and attracted interbank loans in the bank's assets and liabilities do not exceed 1%).

InvestCapitalBank provides clients with the opportunity to work with MasterCard Int. payment systems. and VISA International, issuing and acquiring bank card data. The number of cards issued and in circulation exceeds 200 thousand, and the service network includes 84 ATMs.

Based on the results of an express analysis of financial statements, the information agency "BankStars" assigns the bank OJSC "InvestCapitalBank" a "satisfactory" reliability rating. According to BankStars Information Agency, this bank is characterized by a moderate risk of non-fulfillment of its obligations to creditors and depositors, however, the stability of the bank is sensitive to unfavorable developments of the situation. A necessary condition for increasing the reliability assessment to moderately high is an increase in the level of capitalization of the bank. Active operations of commercial banks mean the use of their own and borrowed funds on their behalf to generate appropriate income.

Based on an analysis of the structure of the bank’s balance sheet in the reporting period, the volatility of funds in deposits and current accounts of the bank and a group of banks similar in size of assets, BankStars Information Agency believes that OJSC InvestCapitalBank has a “high” ability to ensure the timely fulfillment of its obligations under return of funds to depositors and creditors in the event of a possible stress scenario.

Based on the results of December 2011, BankStars news agency notes an increase in the capitalization level of InvestCapitalBank OJSC to 11.41% due to the faster growth rate of equity capital relative to the growth rate of the bank's assets. According to the information agency "BankStars", OJSC "InvestCapitalBank" is characterized by a "satisfactory" ability to compensate for possible losses in the event of a possible stress scenario at the expense of its own capital.

In December 2011, the bank's profit increased by 44.54 million rubles, amounting to 247.24 million rubles as of the reporting date. According to the results of the fourth quarter of 2011, the return on equity of OJSC "InvestCapitalBank" was 31.94%, the return on the bank's assets for the same period was 1.74%, which approximately corresponds to the average similar indicator of the 30 largest banks in Russia of 1.41%. The bank's profit structure is dominated by stable sources of income - interest and commissions

income, which, according to BankStars Information Agency, is a factor that has a positive impact on the stability of future income.

The activities of banks are connected with the activities of people and are carried out in conditions of fluctuations in the level of supply and demand for banking services, increasingly evident competition, etc. In this regard, it is not possible to determine the exact mathematical dependencies that describe banking activities as well as any other socio-economic activity, and therefore the required control actions. Consequently, recommendations developed on the basis of an analysis of the bank’s activities can only be of a qualitative nature (for example, increase the share of cheaper funds raised, reduce the share of operations that bring in insufficient profit, etc.).

From this point of view, let us consider recommendations that can be made based on an analysis of the bank’s activities. With this division of active operations into groups according to the direction of funds, terms, groups of clients and other criteria, it is necessary: ​​firstly, for subsequent quantitative and qualitative analysis of their structure associated with determining the relative share of each group in the total amount of assets of the bank, which, in in turn, is necessary for subsequent analysis of the profitability of banks. Secondly, when analyzing and comparing the structure of a bank’s active operations, which can be determined from published balance sheets for two (or more) years, it can be recommended to begin carrying out additional active operations. This is due to the fact that in a real market environment, expanding the composition of the bank’s active operations is, as a rule, advisable.

Thus, the goal set before starting to write the course work was achieved with the help of the assigned tasks.

Workshop

Provides data on the types of assets of a commercial bank

Table 8

Types of assets	Amount, thousand rubles
1. Cash
2.1 Required reserves
10. Other assets
Total assets:

Required:

Determine the share of individual asset items in the overall asset structure.

Draw conclusions.

In order to determine the specific weight of individual asset items in the overall asset structure, it is necessary to add a specific weight column to the table given in task 1 and make calculations. For calculations we need the following formula: (individual type of asset/total assets)*100%

a) (Cash/total assets)*100=(8784922/635460098)*100=1.37, etc.

Types of assets of a commercial bank (according to published reports)

Table 8

Types of assets	Amount, thousand rubles	Specific gravity, %
1. Cash
2. Funds from credit institutions in the Central Bank of the Russian Federation
2.1 Required reserves
3. Funds in credit institutions
4. Net investment in trading securities
5. Net loans outstanding
6. Net investments in investment securities held to maturity
7.Net investments in investment securities available for sale
8. Fixed assets, intangible assets and inventories
9. Requirements for receiving interest
10. Other assets
Total assets:

Analyzing Table 8, it can be noted that the main share in the structure of a commercial bank’s assets is occupied by net loan debt, which accounts for 61.25%. Then there are investments in investment securities available for sale, the share of which is 12.67%. It may also be noted that this investment is only 0.68% greater than the net investment in trading securities. It can also be noted that about 4-5% are funds from credit institutions in the Central Bank of the Russian Federation and funds from credit institutions. Approximately from 1 to 1.8% of total assets are cash, required reserves, fixed assets, intangible assets and inventories, and other assets. The smallest share of less than 1% consists of net investments in investment securities held to maturity and interest claims.

Data on the placement of bank funds are provided:

Table 9

Types of assets of a commercial bank (according to published reports)

Types of assets	Amount, thousand rubles	Specific gravity, %	Amount, thousand rubles	Specific gravity, %	Change over period %
1. Cash
2. Funds from credit institutions in the Central Bank of the Russian Federation
2.1 Required reserves
3. Funds in credit institutions
4. Net investment in trading securities
5. Net loans outstanding
6. Net investments in investment securities held to maturity
7.Net investments in investment securities available for sale
8. Fixed assets, intangible assets and inventories
9. Requirements for receiving interest
10. Other assets
Total assets:

Required:

Analyze the structure of assets of a commercial bank.

Analyze the dynamics of changes in bank asset indicators compared to task 1.

Draw conclusions.

In order to analyze the structure of assets of a commercial bank, we will determine the share of individual balance sheet items in the overall structure of assets. To do this, add an additional column of specific gravity to the original table 8 and make calculations. For calculations we need the following formula:

(individual type of asset/total assets)*100%

a) (Cash/total assets)*100=(6281207/404054373)*100=1.55

To analyze the dynamics of changes in bank asset indicators in comparison with task 1, it is necessary to add to the original table 8 columns with the amounts of assets and specific weight from task 1 and a column for changes for these periods in %.

Having made all the necessary calculations, the following conclusions can be drawn:

the changes have affected all types of assets, both positive and negative changes are observed, this indicates that there is not only an increase in assets, but also a reduction in them;

a decrease in assets is observed in the following types: claims to receive interest by 57.66%, also funds in credit institutions by 15.91% and net investments in investment securities held to maturity by 24.52%;

the largest change was in net investments in investment securities available for sale, which increased by 227.31%;

an increase of approximately 180% occurred in the following types: net investments in trading securities and other assets;

the table shows that funds from credit institutions in the Central Bank of the Russian Federation increased by 70.62%;

for all other types there is also an increase of approximately 20-40%.

List of references used

Civil Code of the Russian Federation (Part One) dated November 30, 1994 N 51-FZ (as amended on February 11, 2013) (with amendments and additions that entered into force on March 1, 2013)

Federal Law of July 10, 2002 N 86-FZ (as amended on December 29, 2012) “On the Central Bank of the Russian Federation (Bank of Russia)” (as amended and additionally entered into force on January 6, 2013)

Federal Law of December 2, 1990 N 395-1 (as amended on December 29, 2012) “On Banks and Banking Activities” (as amended and additionally entered into force on January 27, 2013)

Federal Law of April 22, 1996 N 39-FZ (as amended on December 29, 2012) “On the Securities Market”

Instruction of the Bank of Russia dated October 25, 2013 N 139-I “On mandatory standards for banks”

Banking: textbook / O. I. Lavrushin, I. D. Mamonova, N. I. and others - ed. Ster.-M.: KNORUS, 2011-768p.

BANKING Kosterina T.M.: Educational and practical manual. - M.: Publishing house. EAOI Center, 2010. - 360 pp.

Banks and non-bank credit organizations and their operations: textbook / Ed. E. F. Zhukova. - M. INFRA-M, 2011.-528 p.

Active operations are operations through which banks place the resources at their disposal to generate profit and maintain liquidity. Active operations are divided into two types: credit operations and investments.

Credit transactions are a relationship between a lender and a borrower in which the former provides the latter with a certain amount of money. Credit operations are divided into active (the bank issues loans) and passive (the bank takes out loans) and can be carried out in two forms - loan and deposit.

Bank lending is carried out in strict compliance with lending principles. These include repayment of lending, urgency, security of the loan (in Russia the following types of collateral are used - collateral, bank guarantee, surety, insurance liability of the borrower for loan repayment). Bank lending is divided into direct (credit relations of business entities directly with the bank) and indirect (credit relations arise first between business entities, which subsequently apply to the bank for loans). The main types of indirect bank lending are transactions with bills of exchange, factoring, leasing.

Direct and indirect lending have their advantages and disadvantages. The advantage of direct lending is the simplicity of organizing the credit process, which has a positive effect on the organization of credit relations between the bank and the borrower. The negative factor is a slightly higher level of risk than with indirect lending.

The loan price is the bank interest rate. With this interest, the bank covers its costs and makes a profit. The interest rate is influenced by a number of factors:

– demand for credit from borrowers;

– refinancing rate of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation;

- credit term;

– type of loan;

– average interest rate on the interbank credit market;

– the state of money circulation in the country (during a period of inflation, the interest rate rises, during a period of deflation, it falls).

Bank loans can be classified according to the following criteria:

– according to loan terms, loans are divided into short-term, medium-term and long-term;

– by type of security – secured and unsecured;

– by type of borrower – agricultural, industrial, municipal, commercial, etc.;

– by areas of use – for the formation of working capital, investment, for eliminating temporary financial difficulties, export, import, etc.;

– by size – small, medium, large;

- by the method of provision - bills of exchange, using open accounts, seasonal, etc. The credit process consists of four stages.

Stage I. Assessment of the economic situation in the country, region, industry. On its basis, the bank's credit policy is developed.

Stage II. Providing a bank loan. The borrower submits the necessary documents to the bank, and a loan agreement is concluded between the bank and the borrower.

Stage III. Control over the use of credit.

Stage IV. Repayment of a bank loan and interest on it. To issue loans to clients, loan accounts are opened: a simple loan account, a special loan account, and a current account.

Investment operations of banks are long-term investments of funds in order to make a profit (investments in securities).

Active KB operations– these are operations for the placement of own, borrowed and borrowed funds in order to generate profit and maintain the liquidity of the bank. Active and passive operations of design bureaus are closely related to each other and interdependent. The structure of banking resources predetermines the timing and nature of their possible placement, while at the same time, assets that are attractive to the bank stimulate it to search for appropriate resources.

Active operations can be divided into the following groups:

1) cash transactions, i.e. cash transactions: receiving, issuing, storing cash;

2) accounting and lending operations: provision of credit, accounting operations with bills and other commercial securities;

3) investment transactions with securities;

4) currency transactions;

5) interbank transactions: lending, interbank settlements on correspondent accounts, interbank deposit.

Loan operations form the basis of the active activity of banks in the deployment of their resource base. On a macroeconomic scale, the significance of these operations is that through them banks transform temporarily inactive monetary funds into active ones, stimulating the processes of production, circulation and consumption.

The second group of active operations are investment ones. In the process of their implementation, the bank acts as an investor, investing resources in securities or acquiring rights to joint business activities. These transactions also generate income for the bank through direct participation in generating profits. The economic purpose of these operations, as a rule, is associated with long-term investment of funds directly into production.

A type of investment operations of banks is investing in buildings, equipment and paying rent. These investments are made at the expense of the bank's own capital; their purpose is to provide conditions for banking activities. These investments do not generate income for the bank. When making investments in securities, banks are guided by the goal of generating income and ensuring liquidity of a certain group of their assets. The main content of the bank's active investment policy is to determine the range of securities that are most profitable for investing, and to optimize the structure of the investment portfolio for each specific period.

Other active operations are varied in form and bring significant income to banks abroad. In Russian practice, their range is still limited. Other active operations include: operations with foreign currency and precious metals, trust, agency, commodity, settlement and others.

Active banking operations are diverse in form and purpose, in which the bank plays different roles, which reflects the different economic content of the bank’s assets. Based on economic content, all CB assets can be divided into four groups:

1. Free reserves are cash on hand, balances on a correspondent account with the RCC of the Bank of Russia and on correspondent accounts in other credit institutions. Free reserves are the most liquid type of bank assets. But, as a rule, these assets either do not generate income or provide minimal income;

2. Loans provided and funds placed in the form of deposits in other credit institutions, including the Bank of Russia. When placing resources in the form of loans or deposits, the bank has requirements for borrowers that are fixed in amounts. The bank's income from these operations is established at the conclusion of the transaction. It is paid in the form of interest;

3. Investments are the investment of bank resources in securities and other financial assets (foreign currency, precious metals), as well as equity participation in joint business activities. By investing in various securities and other financial assets, CBs pursue different goals. Thus, by purchasing foreign currency, gold or government securities (of a high degree of reliability), commercial banks increase their liquidity reserve, because These values ​​can be quickly converted into funds needed by the bank. By carrying out so-called portfolio investments (buying shares, bonds, other types of securities), commercial banks expect to receive additional income in the form of dividends, interest and an increase in market value. To participate in the management of an enterprise, banks acquire controlling stakes in corporations and make direct production investments;

4. Tangible and intangible assets of the bank itself (internal investments) - the cost of the bank building, equipment and other property necessary for the operation of the bank. It should be noted that the successful development of the bank and the strengthening of its position in the loan capital market requires a constant increase in expenses for expanding and improving the bank’s material base. This type of asset not only does not bring income to the bank, but is also constantly associated with expenses. In addition, it is characterized by very low liquidity.

Thus, the bank's assets are grouped according to the level of profitability, the level of risk and the degree of liquidity.

According to the level of profitability, the bank's assets are divided into:

Income-generating (loans, a significant share of investment operations, part of deposit operations, loans and others);

Non-income generating (cash, balances on correspondent and reserve accounts with the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, investments in the bank's fixed assets, free reserves and tangible assets).

The bank's assets must be liquid, i.e. easily converted into cash. From the point of view of liquidity in banking practice there are:

a) highly liquid assets, i.e. assets that are directly in cash (first-priority reserves) or easily convertible into cash (second-priority reserves). First priority reserves include cash on hand and balances on correspondent accounts (if there are no restrictions on their use). Secondary reserves are considered to be easily marketable government securities when there is a large and liquid secondary market. (as indicated, government securities of the Russian Federation have now lost their liquidity as a result of the financial crisis in the country);

b) short-term liquid assets - short-term loans and securities with a secondary market;

c) hard-to-sell assets - long-term loans, securities that do not have a developed secondary market, equity participation in joint activities;

d) low-liquidity assets – investments in the bank’s fixed assets.

Active credit operations should be understood as a financial and legal act of a transaction formalized by an agreement between the creditor (bank) issuing a loan and the debtor (legal entity or individual) receiving it.

The main types of loans can be classified by credit method– as credit applications are received or by opening a credit line. Opening a credit limit (line) means reaching an agreement between the bank and the borrower on the maximum amount of debt within a specified period (for example, for six months, a year, but an extension is also possible). During this period, the borrower can receive the entire loan or part of it at any time without additional negotiations with the bank. However, a bank that closely monitors the borrower’s financial performance may stop providing a loan within the approved limit and demand the return of the amount issued if the borrower’s situation has worsened during the period of use of the loan. And on the contrary, the client has the right not to use the credit line in whole or in part. The opening of a credit line is often accompanied by the bank’s requirement for the borrower to keep in his current account a so-called compensation balance in the amount of at least 20% of the credit line amount, either for the entire period of its validity or the period of its actual use.

The technology for using a credit line is different. A loan under an open line of credit can be issued from a loan account opened by the bank or applied to a combined active-passive account, which records all the bank’s transactions with the client. A classic example of an active-passive account is current account, which combines current and loan accounts. All cash receipts in favor of the client (proceeds from the sale of goods, crediting of received debts to creditors, etc.) are credited to the checking account. The debit of the account records loans provided by the bank to the client, as well as all payments to the client. With a credit balance, the client has cash in the bank, and with a debit balance, the bank has provided the client with a loan, for which the client pays interest to the bank. Interest for a contract loan is calculated periodically based on the balance, usually quarterly. The difference between debit and credit interest is the bank's margin, or income.

Another method of lending to a client using the credit line method is overdraft lending - the simplest lending method. With an overdraft, the bank provides a loan by giving the client money from his current account in excess of the account balance within the credit limit. The limit amount, i.e. The maximum overdraft amount is established when opening a current account by agreement between the bank and the client. With an overdraft, all amounts credited to the client’s current account are used to pay off the debt, so the volume of the loan changes as funds are received. Unlike a current account, interest on an overdraft is accrued daily. When comparing an overdraft with a loan, there are both advantages and disadvantages to note.

An overdraft is more profitable for a client than a loan under a separate loan agreement if it is necessary to finance short-term and current minor expenses, for example, a one-time purchase of a car or computer. When financing medium or large expenses of medium and long duration, a loan is preferable. With an overdraft, interest is paid when expenses exceed the balance in the current account, and with a loan, as a rule, fixed interest is established for a certain period of time.

For reliable clients with a good business reputation, the bank can quickly and quickly provide additional benefits with an overdraft than with a regular loan. Typically, the bank must provide an overdraft facility to the customer for certain fees if the customer uses credit. In a certain sense, an overdraft is a financial incentive for the client for the correct relationship with the bank.

In Russian practice, commercial banks provide overdrafts to clients subject to a number of conditions:

a sufficient period of activity from the moment of state registration;

conclusion of a bank account agreement for settlement and cash services;

no requirements for a current account (card file No. 2) for six months;

presence of constant turnover on the current account;

diversified nature of the client’s credit turnover (the overdraft lending limit is not set for clients whose monthly credit turnover on the account is formed from a small amount of income or only from income from a small number of counterparties);

impeccable credit history;

stability of financial position.

While the basic features of overdraft lending are common, banks can use different mechanisms for setting the overdraft limit. Most Russian commercial banks provide three types of overdraft limits: standard, for collection and technical overdraft.

The standard overdraft limit and the overdraft limit for collection are calculated based on the minimum monthly credit turnover on the client’s current account with the bank. The technical overdraft limit is determined in the amount of up to 90% of the amount of guaranteed receipts to the current account within the next three business days.

Loans in a fixed amount for a certain period are issued, as a rule, to meet the target need for funds on the basis of a loan agreement, which, unlike an agreement to open a credit line, is a firm commitment of the bank to issue a loan on the terms of the agreement. The peculiarity of such a loan is that it is repaid within a strictly established period when repaid in a lump sum or in accordance with the clear repayment scale provided for in the loan agreement in regular periodic installments. Credits in the form of term loans can be either short-term or medium- and long-term. Term loans are issued from a loan account opened by the bank either by crediting the borrower's current or current account, or by paying claims against the borrower or issuing cash.

When a loan is issued in the form of a bill of exchange (the so-called bill of exchange loan), the bank, based on the loan agreement, issues a promissory note to the borrower and issues it to the borrower. The face value of the bill is equal to the amount of the loan, the date of repayment of the loan is set on the eve of the maturity date of the bill. The borrower uses the bill of exchange received from the bank to settle payments with his supplier, and on the due date pays the bank the amount of the bill of exchange and interest on the loan in the form of a bank commission. When the bill matures, the bank pays the amount to the last holder of the bill.

Depending on the urgency of the loan short-term, medium-term and long-term loans are allocated. Short-term loans serve the current needs of the borrower related to the movement of working capital. Short-term loans are those whose repayment period, according to international standards, does not exceed 1 year. However, in practice, this period may not be the same, which is determined by economic conditions and the degree of inflation.

A short-term loan serves as one of the forms of formation and movement of the working capital of enterprises. It contributes to the formation of their working capital, increases solvency and strengthens their financial position. Short-term loans are provided by banks for the formation of seasonal excess inventories of inventory, for seasonal costs associated with the production and procurement of products, temporary replenishment of the lack of working capital, etc.

Medium-term and long-term loans serve long-term needs caused by the need to modernize production and make capital expenditures to expand production. There is no established standard term as a criterion for classifying a loan as a medium-term or long-term loan. As a rule, loans that form working capital are short-term, and loans involved in the expanded reproduction of fixed assets are classified as medium- and long-term loans. In addition to short-, medium- and long-term loans, there is a type of loan of special urgency - an on-call loan (demand loan), which is repaid on demand. It is issued by the bank to brokers, dealers and clients for ultra-short-term needs and is used, as a rule, for stock market speculation.

Based on availability of collateral– secured and unsecured (blank). Russian banks strive to provide secured loans, in which they are also interested in the regulatory system of the Central Bank of Russia. As additional security for the return of the principal amount and payment of interest in the Russian Federation, a pledge, a surety and a bank guarantee are used.

Bank guarantee- this is a written obligation to the creditor to pay him, upon presentation of a written demand, a sum of money in accordance with the terms of the guarantee. A bank guarantee as an instrument for ensuring loan repayment differs from a pledge and a guarantee in its independence from the loan agreement and remuneration. The liability of the guarantor is limited to the amount specified in the guarantee, regardless of the actual debt of the principal (recipient of the guarantee) under the main obligation, unless otherwise provided in the guarantee.

Surety– under a guarantee agreement, the guarantor undertakes to be responsible to the creditor of another person for the fulfillment of his obligation in whole or in part (Article 361 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). The guarantor is liable to the creditor to the same extent as the debtor.

By bail a creditor under an obligation secured by a pledge (pledgee) has the right, in the event of failure by the debtor to fulfill this obligation, to receive satisfaction from the value of the pledged property preferentially before other creditors, with exceptions established by law (Clause 1 of Article 334 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). The subject of a pledge can be any property and property rights (claims), except for property withdrawn from circulation, property the pledge of which is prohibited by law, as well as claims inextricably linked to the person of the creditor. The pledgor can be either the debtor himself or a third party.

Loan repayment methods are important. The most common type of loan is a loan against inventories, since they are the most reliable collateral for a loan. The loan can be secured by goods and material assets, documents of title. Commodity loans are issued by banks not in the full amount of the market value of the product, but in part (as a rule, no more than 50%, and in rare cases of favorable economic conditions - up to 70% of the market value of the product).

Since in a market economy the main problem is the sale of goods, the goods produced and shipped may not find their buyer. This is the main difference between credit relations in a market environment and an administrative-command system. By giving a loan against commodity collateral in market conditions, credit institutions take a great risk, because if the loan is not repaid on time, the bank seizes the goods that serve as collateral for the loan and can cover the client’s debt with the proceeds from their sale. But not in all cases the product can be sold.

Bill transactions are divided into transactions accounting for bills and loans against bills. Discounting (discounting) bills means the purchase of bills by the bank before their maturity date. As a result, they are completely transferred to his disposal, and with them the right to demand payments from bill holders. In turn, the bank, if it is experiencing difficulties in funds, can rediscount these bills in the regional department of the Central Bank. Taking into account the bill, the bank becomes its owner and pays the person who issued the bill or presented it for accounting a certain amount of money. For this operation, the bank charges the client a certain percentage, which is called discount interest or discount. Discount is the difference between the amount indicated on the bill of exchange and the amount paid to the bill holder. Sometimes banks organize accounting committees that study the creditworthiness of individual clients, setting a limit for the accounting of bills of exchange for individuals and enterprises.

Loans secured by bills of exchange differ from bill discounting in that ownership of the bill of exchange is not assigned to the bank - it is only pledged by the bill holder for a certain period with subsequent redemption after repayment of the loan, i.e. upon expiration of the loan term, the borrower repays it along with interest and receives the bill back: in this case, the loan is issued not within the full amount of the bill, but only for 60-80% of its face value. Banks are subject to the same legal or economic requirements for bills accepted as collateral as for bills taken into account.

Loans secured by securities are issued, as a rule, not in the amount of their full exchange market value, but a certain part of it (50-60%), which is transferred to the bank from the borrower only temporarily as security for the loan until it is repaid along with interest. Securities represent fictitious capital. Securities loans are generally not associated with the actual production of goods, but serve primarily as a tool for financing speculation on the stock exchange.

When issuing large loans, real estate is accepted as collateral. Loans secured by real estate are called mortgage loans. Land plots and agricultural buildings and premises are used as collateral for mortgage loans for enterprises of various forms of ownership. For individual borrowers, residential buildings and apartments can serve as collateral for mortgage loans. The loan size is usually 50-90% of the value of the property. As for movable property, the collateral can be equipment, inventory, machinery, vehicles, and for individuals - durable items, including cars.

Depending on the subject of lending distinguish between loans to state and non-state enterprises and organizations, citizens engaged in self-employment, other banks, other enterprises, including government agencies, joint ventures, international associations and organizations.

By purpose There are consumer, trade, agricultural, investment, and budget loans.

By repayment methods A distinction is made between bank loans that are repaid in one lump sum on a specific date and those that are repaid in installments.

The demand for credit from large corporate and industrial structures led to the development of such a form of lending as consortium or syndicated loans– such loans are provided by several lenders (banking consortium) to one borrower. A banking consortium pools its temporarily available funds for a certain period of time for the purpose of lending to a borrower or facility. Borrowers of consortium loans can be enterprises, organizations, banks, and the state. The objects of lending are commodity transactions, transactions on the securities market, foreign exchange market, projects for the implementation of R&D results.

Investment operations of banks- these are investments of cash or other bank reserves in securities, real estate, statutory funds of enterprises and organizations, other investment objects, the market value of which can grow and bring income to the bank in the form of interest, dividends, exchange rate differences (profits from resale).

Acting as intermediaries in transactions with securities, commercial banks provide a range of services - raising funds for production development (underwriting); transactions on mergers, acquisitions and restructuring of enterprises; formation and management of client investment portfolios; work with investor clients to provide information about the current market situation in order to make smart investment decisions; brokerage and dealer operations, depository services.

Active banking operations are operations through which banks place the resources at their disposal in order to generate the necessary income and ensure their liquidity. Active operations of a commercial bank mean the use of borrowed and own funds on its own behalf to generate profit.

It is with the help of active operations that banks can direct funds released in the process of economic activity to those participants in economic turnover who need capital, ensuring the flow of capital into the most promising sectors of the economy. There is a certain relationship between the profitability and riskiness of assets and their liquidity. The riskier an asset is, the more income it can bring to the bank (profitability serves as a payment for risk) and the lower its level of liquidity (a risky asset is more difficult to sell). The riskiest assets are usually both the highest yielding and the least liquid.

According to their objectives, active operations can be divided into operations aimed at maintaining a bank’s liquidity at a certain level, and operations aimed at making a profit.

The main types of active operations of the bank are:

Providing loans of various types to legal entities and individuals for a certain period, for various purposes and on various conditions;

Investments in securities (bonds, shares, etc.) issued by the state or other legal entities, i.e. transactions with securities on one’s own behalf and at one’s own expense;

Factoring operations;

Placement of funds in deposits and other banks.

Currently, there is no consensus among economists regarding the classification of some operations as active or intermediary. For example, some economists classify leasing operations as intermediary ones, since the bank acts as an intermediary during their implementation. Other economists believe that a leasing loan should be classified as an active operation, since it generates income, and in its economic essence it is a type of loan.

The main type of active banking operations is lending, through which commercial banks receive about 80-90% of their total income.

Lending to individuals and legal entities is carried out on the basis of Resolution of the Board of the National Bank of the Republic of Belarus dated December 30, 2003 No. 226 “Instructions on the procedure for the provision (placement) of funds by banks in the form of a loan and their return” (with amendments and additions), as well as on based on local regulations of commercial banks.

Currently, processes are taking place in the Republic of Belarus associated with an increase in interest rates on bank loans. This is due to an increase in credit risks associated with the unstable financial situation in the country. An increase in the refinancing rate forces banks to tie interest rates on loans to this value, since they cannot make the cost of loans cheaper than the cost of funds raised in order to avoid ruin. Therefore, in such a situation, banks offer clients who previously received loans to enter into additional agreements, according to which the amount of interest payments is strictly tied to the refinancing rate

Some banks accommodate clients who find themselves in a particularly difficult situation and temporarily fix the interest rate or defer loan repayment.

Factoring operations can be carried out by commercial banks seeking to universalize their functions, increase the number of clients, provide comprehensive services to existing clients and, ultimately, increase the bank’s image. For such operations, banks may create specialized departments, branches or companies. Factoring is the assignment to a bank of unpaid debt claims (payment documents, bills, etc.) arising between producers and consumers in the process of selling goods and services. The basis of the factoring operation is the purchase by the factor of the supplier’s payment documents for the shipped products, work performed and services provided and the transfer by the supplier to the factor of the right to demand payment from the buyer.

Investments in securities. The main types of securities with which commercial banks transact are government securities. As a rule, the purchase and sale of securities is carried out by head branches on the basis of applications submitted by branches or branches. In the practice of some banks, there is such a feature as the concentration of transactions with securities exclusively at the level of the head branch. Transactions with government securities on the primary market are carried out taking into account compliance with the minimum mandatory purchase standard established by the National Bank. Thus, at present, banks have a standard for the purchase of government short-term and long-term bonds in the amount of at least 6% of their equity capital for the quarter. Based on the results of transactions, commercial banks compile a portfolio of securities, which reflects the balances of securities on the relevant balance sheet accounts with their detailed characteristics.

The legislation of the Republic of Belarus gives commercial banks the right to conduct active operations with other types of securities. However, such a practice is rare due to the underdevelopment of the secondary securities market.

Active operations of commercial banks also include the provision of temporarily free resources in the form of interbank loans. This happens if a commercial bank has a positive balance in its correspondent account, i.e. temporarily free resources. Banks provide loans to each other on a contractual basis both in Belarusian rubles and in foreign currency.

In practice, the following main types of interbank credit are used:

Overdraft on correspondent accounts: the corresponding account records the amounts of debit (credit) balances on correspondent accounts of banks at the end of the operating day;

Overnight loans provided to other banks for a period of no more than one business day. This type of interbank credit is used to complete the current day's settlements;

Funds provided (received) to other banks under repo transactions. These transactions involve the purchase of securities from them for a certain period with the condition of their repurchase at a predetermined price.

A pledge of property can serve as collateral for an interbank loan. In some cases, the bank may re-mortgage the property of its clients received during transactions. Also, guarantees and sureties of other banks, enterprises and organizations can be used as collateral if they are secured by a highly liquid pledge of the guarantor or guarantor. Banks can provide each other with loans without appropriate collateral for a period of only up to 3 days with the consent of both parties.