A commercial bank is a commercial enterprise that, in market conditions, builds its relationships with partners as ordinary market ones, i.e. based on profitability and risk. However, a bank must always balance profitability with safety and liquidity considerations. A bank that makes too many loans or fails to provide the liquidity needed in certain unexpected situations may become insolvent. This is due to the fact that the fundamental principle of the successful functioning of any commercial bank is its activity within the limits of actually available resources.

However, it is important not only the quantitative equality of the bank’s resources and its credit investments, but also their coincidence in terms of qualitative characteristics.

In market conditions, a commercial bank is not only one of the types of commercial enterprises, but also plays an important role as a financial intermediary in the following areas: in the field of redistribution of temporarily free funds of legal entities and individuals on the basis of urgency, payment and repayment; when making payments between business entities, when the responsibility of banks for the timely and complete execution of payment orders of their clients is especially important; when carrying out transactions with securities when the bank acts as an investment broker, investment consultant, investment company or fund.

Typically there are four groups of banking operations: passive; active; Banking services; banks' own operations.

The relevance of the research topic is determined by the fact that the first two groups of operations are the most common, and they account for the bulk of banking profits.

In developed countries with market economies, the volume of banking services has increased significantly in recent years. They are gradually becoming the second most important source of income for banks. Banks' own operations continue to play a subordinate role. To create a bank, a certain amount of equity capital is initially required. But this is only the starting point for organizing your own banking business. Banking operations are based on borrowed funds. In economically developed countries, the ratio between equity and debt capital ranges from 1:10 to 1:100.

In this regard, the research objectives were determined:

1) Study of the main content of passive and active operations of a commercial bank.

2) Study of the basic economic standards for the activities of a commercial bank.

The purpose of the study is basic banking operations.

I. PASSIVE OPERATIONS OF A COMMERCIAL BANK

1.1. The essence and content of passive operations

By passive we mean such operations of banks, as a result of which there is an increase in funds held in passive accounts or active-passive accounts in terms of the excess of liabilities over assets (there are no active-passive accounts in the balance sheet of Russian banks) 1. In other words, passive operations of commercial banks are operations to generate sources of funds, bank resources, which are reflected in the liability side of its balance sheet.

Note that the resources of commercial banks consist of two main types of sources: the bank’s own funds and equivalent funds; raised funds. A peculiarity of the banking business is the fact that a commercial bank operates primarily on borrowed funds, which account for up to 90% of the bank’s total liabilities, while its own funds account for only about 10% 2 .

Passive operations play an important role for commercial banks.

It is with their help that banks acquire credit resources in the money markets.

There are four forms of passive operations of commercial banks 3: a) contributions to the authorized capital (sale of shares and shares to the first owners); b) deductions from the bank’s profits for the formation or increase of funds; c) deposit operations (funds received from clients); d) non-deposit transactions.

Passive operations serve to mobilize funds. As a result of passive operations, the essence of which is to obtain a loan, banks receive funds that are used to finance active operations (Fig. 1). The results of these operations are reflected in the liability side of the bank's balance sheet.

Let us highlight the point that the analysis of a bank's liabilities usually begins with its own capital 1.

Rice. Passive operations of banks

Firstly, because without it it is hardly possible to start banking activities at all. Secondly, because the importance of equity capital in the bank’s activities is much more significant than its share in the total volume of liabilities. Equity capital is formed at the time of creation of the bank and initially consists of amounts received from the founders as their contribution to the authorized capital of the bank, which can be made either directly - if the bank is created in the form of a limited liability company, or through the purchase of shares - if the bank is created in the form of a joint stock company.

Equity capital performs three functions 1: 1) protective, 2) operational and 3) regulating. The protective function means the protection of the economic interests of depositors and creditors, i.e. the possibility of paying them compensation in the event of losses or bankruptcy of the bank; as well as the continuation of the bank's activities regardless of the bank's losses.

The regulatory function is manifested in the fact that the size of the bank's own funds determines the scale of its activities. The operational function of equity capital is that it is a source of investment in its own tangible assets, a source of development of the bank’s material base. The sources of the bank's own capital are: authorized capital, additional capital, bank funds, retained earnings of the reporting year and previous years 2.

The authorized capital of a credit organization is made up of contributions from its participants and determines the minimum amount of property that guarantees the interests of its creditors. For joint-stock banks, it is established as the sum of the par value of its shares acquired by shareholders, and for banks in the form of an LLC - as the par value of all shares of its participants.

Additional capital includes: the increase in the value of property during its revaluation, share premium, i.e. the difference between the placement price of shares at issue and their par value; the value of property received free of charge by the bank from organizations and individuals.

The importance of the bank's own resources is primarily to maintain its stability. At the initial stage of creating a bank, it is the own funds that cover the primary expenses (land, buildings, equipment, salaries), without which the bank cannot begin its activities. Using their own resources, banks create the reserves they need. Finally, own resources are the main source of investment in long-term assets.

From the above, it can be noted that the structure of own funds of different banks is heterogeneous. They include: authorized capital; Extra capital; reserve fund, special purpose funds, etc., as well as retained earnings.

Funds raised by banks cover about 90% of the total need for financial resources to carry out active operations, primarily credit. Their role is extremely high. By mobilizing temporarily available funds of legal entities and individuals on the credit market, commercial banks use them to satisfy the national economy’s need for additional working capital, facilitate the conversion of money into capital, and meet the population’s needs for consumer credit.

Both the own and attracted resources of a commercial bank are reflected in the correspondent account opened for it with the Central Bank of the Russian Federation. This is an active account on the balance sheet of a commercial bank (30102), therefore resources are reflected in the debit of this account, and investments are reflected in the credit of this account. 1

Thus, the value of the debit balance reflects the size of the bank's free reserve (the amount of its resources that have not yet been invested in active operations). The larger the free reserve, the more stable the bank, but also the less profit it receives. On the contrary, the smaller the free reserve, the less stable the bank, but also the more profit it makes. Therefore, every commercial bank strives to optimize the balance of funds in the correspondent account.

It can be noted that passive operations allow banks to attract funds already in circulation 1 . New resources are created by the banking system as a result of active credit operations. With the help of the first two forms of passive operations, the first large group of credit resources is formed - own resources. The following two forms of passive operations form the second large group of resources - borrowed, or attracted, credit resources.

The bank's own resources are bank capital and items equivalent to it.

The bank's funds are formed from profits in the manner established by the bank's constituent documents, taking into account the requirements of current legislation. These include 2: 1) Reserve fund, which serves to cover possible losses of the bank. 2) The Industrial and Social Development Fund serves to finance the technical improvement of banking. 3) The material incentive fund serves to encourage bank staff. 4) The Fund of the Chairman of the Board of the Bank is used to finance areas not provided for by other funds of the bank. In addition to the above, banks create: 5) Special insurance funds for the depreciation of investments in securities and possible losses on bank loans. 6) Accumulation funds represent the bank’s retained profits, reserved as financial support for its production and social development and other activities to create new property.

In practice, there are two ways to increase equity capital 1: 1) accumulation of profit and 2) attracting additional capital on the financial market.

The accumulation of profit can occur in the form of accelerated creation of reserve and other bank funds with their subsequent capitalization, or in the form of accumulation of retained earnings from previous years. This is the cheapest way to increase capital, without affecting the existing management structure of the bank. However, using a significant part of the profit received to increase equity capital means a reduction in the current dividends of the bank's shareholders and may lead to a fall in the market value of shares of open joint-stock banks.

1.2. Deposit and non-deposit operations

Passive credit operations primarily include deposit operations.

Deposit operations are operations of banks to attract funds from legal entities and individuals into deposits, either for certain periods or on demand. Deposit operations usually account for the bulk of their liabilities 2 .

There can be 3 subjects of deposit operations: state-owned enterprises and organizations; government agencies; cooperatives; joint stock companies; mixed enterprises with foreign capital; party and public organizations and foundations; financial and insurance companies; investment and trust companies and funds; individual individuals and associations of these individuals; banks and other credit institutions.

The objects of deposit operations are deposits - amounts of money that the subjects of deposit operations deposit into the bank, which are deposited in bank accounts for a certain time due to the current procedure for carrying out banking operations 1 .

By maturity, deposits are usually divided into two groups 2: demand deposits; time deposits (with their varieties - deposit and savings certificates).

Demand deposits are funds in current, settlement, budget and other accounts related to settlements or intended use, as well as demand deposits.

Due to the frequency of transactions in these accounts, transaction costs for these accounts are usually higher than for time deposits, but since banks usually pay little or no interest on these accounts (then customers may be given various benefits), these resources are relatively cheap for the bank. At the same time, this is the least stable part of the resources; banks need to have a higher operating reserve for them to maintain liquidity. Therefore, the optimal share of these funds in the bank’s resources is 30-36%. In Russia the share of these funds is much higher.

Demand deposits also include credit balances on correspondent accounts and demand deposits of other banks in a given bank.

Time bank deposits are funds deposited in the bank for a fixed period in the agreement. On them, owners are usually paid a higher interest rate than on demand deposits and, as a rule, there are restrictions on early withdrawal, and in some cases, on replenishing the deposit.

Operating expenses of banks for time deposits, as well as reserve requirements, are usually lower than for demand deposits, but interest payments are much higher, so they are not always profitable for banks. But banks are interested in attracting time deposits because they can be used for long-term investments.

Term bank deposits are divided into conditional (the deposit is kept until the occurrence of any event), with advance notice of withdrawal of funds (when the client must apply for withdrawal within a predetermined time frame) and actual time deposits.

Time deposits themselves, according to their storage periods, are divided into deposits with a period of: up to 30 days; from 31 to 90 days; from 91 to 180 days; from 181 days to 1 year; from 1 year to 3 years; over 3 years.

Bank certificates. Time deposits can be issued by a bank bill, as well as certificates of deposit and savings certificates.

In Russia, the right to issue savings certificates is granted by banks subject to certain conditions determined by the Central Bank of the Russian Federation and Resolutions of the Russian Government.

The bank has the right to place savings (deposit) certificates only after registering the conditions for issuance and circulation of certificates at the territorial office of the Bank of Russia.

Savings deposits are beneficial to banks because they are usually long-term in nature and, therefore, can serve as a source of long-term investments.

Their disadvantages for banks are as follows: 1) The need to pay increased interest on deposits and thus reduce the margin (the difference between interest on active and passive credit transactions). 2) Exposure of these deposits to various factors (political, economic, psychological), which increases the threat of a rapid outflow of funds from these accounts and loss of bank liquidity. 3) The bank's inability to renew these resources on an ongoing basis.

Commercial banks, in a competitive market for credit resources, must constantly take care of both the quantitative and qualitative improvement of their deposits. They use different methods for this (interest rate, various services and benefits for depositors). The procedure for conducting deposit operations is regulated by the bank’s internal documents. At the same time, all banks comply with several fundamental principles for organizing deposit operations. They are as follows: deposit operations must contribute to the generation of profit or create conditions for making profit in the future; deposit operations should be varied and conducted with different entities; In the process of organizing deposit operations, special attention should be paid to time deposits; the relationship and consistency between deposit operations and credit operations must be ensured in terms of the timing and amounts of deposits and credit investments; when organizing deposit and credit operations, the bank must strive to minimize its available resources; The bank should take measures to develop banking services that help attract deposits.

For passive operations, in particular deposits, banks are required to create required reserves. For funds in settlement, current and deposit accounts (except for deposits received from other banks), accounts of budgets of various levels and extra-budgetary funds, standards for required reserves deposited with the Bank of Russia are established (accounts 30202, 30204 in the balance sheet of a commercial bank) 1 .

In the Russian Federation, required reserve standards have been established since 1989, since the formation of the first commercial banks. In accordance with the Federal Law “On the Central Bank of the Russian Federation (Bank of Russia)”, the amount of required reserves as a percentage of the credit institution’s liabilities, as well as the procedure for depositing them with the Bank of Russia, is established by the Board of Directors of the Bank of Russia. Required reserve standards cannot exceed 20% of a credit institution's liabilities.

Non-deposit sources of attracting resources include: obtaining loans on the interbank market; agreement for the sale of securities and repurchase, discounting of bills and obtaining loans from the central bank; sale of bankers' acceptances; issue of commercial paper; obtaining loans on the Eurodollar market; issue of capital notes and bonds.

In the context of the formation of the Russian banking system, most of the non-deposit sources of attracting resources did not receive their development. Russian banks mainly use interbank loans and loans from the Central Bank of the Russian Federation from these sources.

In Russia, the organizers of the interbank loan market were the Moscow International and Moscow Central Stock Exchanges in 1991, which were the first to organize credit auctions. The interbank loan market is divided into three segments: three-month loans; one to two month loans; “short money” (the shortest loans up to 1 - 2 days) 1.

Such a non-deposit source of resources as issuing bonds has great prospects for Russian banks. Banks have the right to issue bonds in the amount of no more than 25% of the authorized capital and after full payment of all previously issued shares. Bonds can be either registered or bearer. The loan is repaid from the bank’s net profit or, if there is a shortage, from the reserve fund. To influence the bond price, the bank can buy or sell them on the stock exchange.

In the 90s of the XX century. repo transactions with government securities have become widespread.

II. ACTIVE OPERATIONS OF A COMMERCIAL BANK

2.1. Composition and structure of assets

The bank's active operations constitute a significant and decisive part of its operations. Active operations of a commercial bank mean the use of borrowed and own funds on its own behalf to generate appropriate income.

The main types of active operations of a commercial bank are: providing loans to legal entities and individuals on various conditions and for various periods; transactions with securities in one’s own name and at one’s own expense; investment; REPO operations; currency dealing operations; non-traditional operations of commercial banks 1.

Active operations are carried out by commercial banks in order to make a profit while maintaining the required level of bank liquidity and optimal distribution of risks for certain types of operations. The need to comply with these requirements forces banks to place part of their assets in investments that do not generate income.

The asset structure is understood as the ratio of asset items of the bank’s balance sheet of different quality to the balance sheet total. The quality of a bank's assets is determined by the appropriate structure of its assets, the diversification of active operations, the volume of risky assets, the volume of critical and defective assets and signs of asset variability.

According to economic content, all assets of a commercial bank can be divided into 4 groups 2:

1. Free reserves are cash on hand, balances on a correspondent account with the Bank of Russia RCC and on correspondent accounts with other credit institutions. Free reserves are the most liquid type of bank assets. But, as a rule, these assets either do not generate income or provide minimal income.

2. Loans and funds placed in the form of deposits in other credit institutions, including the Bank of Russia.

When placing resources in the form of loans or deposits, the bank has requirements for borrowers that are fixed in amounts. The bank's income from these operations is established at the conclusion of the transaction. It is paid as interest.

3. Investments are the investment of bank resources in securities and other financial assets (foreign currency, precious metals), as well as equity participation in joint business activities.

By investing in various securities and other financial assets, commercial banks pursue different goals. Thus, by purchasing foreign currency, gold or government securities, commercial banks increase their liquidity reserve, since these values ​​can be quickly converted into the funds the bank needs. By carrying out so-called portfolio investments (buying shares, bonds, other types of securities), commercial banks expect to receive additional income in the form of dividends, interest and increases in market value.

To participate in the management of an enterprise, banks acquire controlling stakes and make direct production investments.

4. Tangible and intangible assets of the bank itself (internal investments). These include the cost of the bank building, equipment, and other property necessary for the operation of the bank. It should be noted that the successful development of the bank and the strengthening of its position in the loan capital market requires a constant increase in expenses for expanding and improving the bank’s material base. This type of asset not only does not bring income to the bank, but is also constantly associated with expenses. In addition, it is characterized by very low liquidity.

Despite the fact that the assets of a commercial bank can be divided into four categories: cash and cash equivalents; investments in securities; loans; buildings and equipment.

However, every bank faces the challenge of establishing and maintaining a sound asset structure. In addition, the structure of assets is largely determined by existing national characteristics. The highest share of cash and other cash, funds in accounts in central banks: Spain (12.94%), Italy (7.86%) and Russia (6%). The lowest is in banks in Japan, the USA, and Belgium 1 .

The large differences between banks in the shares of other assets are explained by differences in the classification of assets, in particular the transit operations of banks.

However, it is possible to see the overall picture of the diversification of banks' active operations and the challenges facing the determination of their rational structure in a particular country. This is largely determined by the peculiarities of legislation and accounting.

For example, the low activity of banks in Spain, the USA and Russia in the interbank markets is associated with various trends. Thus, in Spain, situations arose of a shortage of money supply in banks in general and due to required reserves (12.94%), withdrawing money from the interbank market. The situation is further aggravated by the fact that in this article banks in Spain additionally take into account monetary documents for payment and in circulation, which are taken into account by banks of other countries in other assets. In the USA, the situation is largely explained by the reflection of the share of required reserves in other assets (66.12%). It also diverts bank funds from interbank markets. In Russia, a similar situation is associated not so much with the high share of required reserves (6%), but with the consequences of the payment crises of August 1995 and 1998. in the interbank market.

The high share of interbank transactions of UK banks also results from the fact that they include funds on demand and short-term notice, and placed in the bank for a period of more than 30 days.

From the foregoing, we can conclude that the structure of assets is largely determined by the peculiarities of banking legislation and accounting, as well as the influence of the external environment.

However, if we use a larger grouping of the composition of assets by main types of banking activities, assets by main types of banking activities, we can draw the following conclusions: 1. The main place in the bank’s active operations is occupied by credit. Their share ranges from 19.90 to 83.25%. 2. The second place among banking assets is occupied by investments in securities (from 2.15 to 23.87%). 3. In third place are cash assets (from 0.2 to 12.94%)). 4. The share of other assets is determined by the peculiarities of accounting and includes a wide range of operations from investments in fixed assets (buildings and structures) to various bank settlement operations (from 2 to 78%) 1 .

However, despite the general trends in the composition and structure of assets of Russian banks and banks in other countries, each bank should strive to create a rational asset structure, which depends primarily on the quality of assets. However, the financial crisis led to significant changes in the composition of the assets of commercial banks in Russia.

The structure of assets is determined not only by the volume of assets and external circumstances, but also by the policy of a particular bank towards improving the quality of assets. In this regard, it is essential to divide assets into gross assets and net assets (cleared of risk and other items) 2 .

Gross asset structure

I. Non-income-generating assets: cash, correspondent accounts in other banks, financial reserves, fixed assets, intangible assets, debtors, settlement funds, use of budgetary and extra-budgetary funds, financing of capital investments, capital expenditures, current expenses, deferred expenses , revaluation of foreign currency and securities, funds diverted from profits, losses of the reporting year and previous years.

II. Income-generating assets: long-term, medium-term and short-term loans to customers, banks and the public, overdue loans and interest, factoring, leasing, participation, securities, issued guarantees.

III. Total assets - gross.

In the structure of the net balance sheet, assets are reduced by the amount of regulatory, savings and transit accounts.

Net asset structure

I. Non-income-generating assets: cash, correspondent accounts in other banks, financial reserves, fixed assets and intangible assets at residual value, debtors in excess of creditors.

II. Income-generating assets: long-term, medium-term and short-term loans less provisions for losses on loans issued to customers, banks and individuals in rubles and foreign currency. Factoring and leasing less the previously created provision for impairment of the cost of these operations. Securities less provisions for impairment of securities, bills, frozen obligations.

The ratio of net assets to gross assets gives an idea of ​​the rational structure of assets, which depends, first of all, on the quality of assets.

Certain performance indicators of Russian credit institutions, grouped by asset size, show the influence of volumetric characteristics on the rationality of the asset structure.

The quality of assets is determined by their liquidity, the volume of risky assets, the share of critical and inferior assets, and the volume of income-generating assets.

To ensure the bank’s daily ability to meet its obligations, the structure of a commercial bank’s assets must meet the qualitative liquidity requirements. For this purpose, all bank assets are divided into groups according to the degree of liquidity depending on the maturity date. The bank's assets are divided into highly liquid assets (i.e. assets that provide instant liquidity): liquid assets, long-term liquidity assets, general liquidity and liquidity for operations with metals 1 .

Instant liquidity (highly liquid) assets include: cash, precious metals, funds in correspondent accounts of credit institutions with the Bank of Russia, bank funds deposited for settlements by checks, funds of credit institutions for cash services of branches; funds of settlement participants in settlement non-bank credit institutions, funds of participants of the RC ORSM, funds of participants of the RC ORSM for ensuring settlements and based on the results of transactions on the ORSM; deposits placed with the Bank of Russia, demand deposits placed with credit institutions and non-resident banks, funds for settlements using plastic cards in credit institutions and non-resident banks, funds provided on demand to bank clients - legal entities; investments in government debt obligations and bonds of internal and external foreign currency loans that are not collateral for loans received by banks; investments in bonds of the Bank of Russia, not encumbered with obligations; funds in correspondent accounts in non-resident banks of countries from the “group of developed countries” minus funds in correspondent accounts, in part of amounts that have been seized, as well as funds written off from customer accounts, but not posted to the correspondent account of a credit organization due to for insufficient funds.

The composition of liquid assets, in addition to the listed highly liquid assets, includes natural precious stones, funds in correspondent accounts with correspondent credit institutions and non-resident banks in hard currency (minus funds in correspondent accounts in non-resident banks from among the “group of developed countries” in hard currency ), funds in correspondent accounts in non-resident banks in foreign currencies with limited conversion and precious metals, funds of participants of the RC Securities Market, deposited in the settlement center to guarantee settlements on transactions in the sectors of the Securities Market; all loans provided by a credit institution in rubles and foreign currency (excluding those extended at least once and newly issued loans to repay previously issued loans), deposits and other placed funds, funds provided by a credit institution, discounted bills and other debt to the bank with a maturity date of within the next 30 days.

Long-term liquidity assets include all loans issued by the bank, including overdue ones (except for loans guaranteed by the government, loans secured by government securities and local government securities, precious metals bullion); placed deposits and funds, including in precious metals, with a remaining maturity of over a year, as well as 50% of guarantees and sureties issued by the bank for a period of over a year.

2.2. Classification of active operations of a commercial bank

The assets of commercial banks can be grouped by 1) level of profitability, 2) level of risk and 3) degree of liquidity 1 .

According to the level of risk, all assets in accordance with the instruction of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation No. 1 dated October 1, 1997 are divided into 5 groups. Each group is assigned a corresponding risk coefficient, which shows how reliable the investment of the bank's funds in certain assets is (%): 1st group - risk-free assets 0; 2nd group - low-risk assets 10; 3rd group - medium risk assets 20; 4th group - assets with increased risk 70; 5th group - high-risk assets 100.

Thus, the first group includes risk-free assets. These are funds in the correspondent account and funds in the bank’s reserve account with the Central Bank of the Russian Federation. The bank's assets in the form of cash balance are assigned a risk factor of 2%, which does not exclude a small degree of risk for this operation.

The second group includes assets with a minimum risk ratio of 10%. These are loans guaranteed by the Russian Government; loans secured by precious metals bullion; loans secured by government securities. However, as practice has shown, investing funds of commercial banks under government guarantees and against government securities turned out to be a riskier operation than 10%, as provided for in Instruction No. 1 of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation. Therefore, when performing active operations, banks must have complete and up-to-date information about the state of affairs in the money market in order to take measures to reduce banking risks.

Active operations of banks classified as the fifth group of assets have the maximum risk (100%). These are bill loans, short-term and long-term loans to customers, debtors for business transactions and capital investments of the bank, as well as the bank’s own buildings. Of course, the probability of losing funds for assets of this group is different, but in a certain situation they can be maximum.

The bank's assets must be liquid, that is, easily converted into cash. From the point of view of liquidity, in banking practice there are 1: a) highly liquid assets, i.e. assets that are directly in cash (first-priority reserves) or easily convertible into cash (second-priority reserves). First priority reserves include cash on hand and balances on correspondent accounts (if there are no restrictions on their use). Secondary reserves are considered easily marketable government securities when there is a large and liquid secondary market; b) short-term liquid assets - short-term loans and securities with a secondary market; c) hard-to-sell assets - long-term loans, securities that do not have a developed secondary market, equity participation in joint activities; d) low-liquid assets - investments in the bank's fixed assets.

Active operations of commercial banks, taking into account their focus on making a profit, can be divided into the following types: lending to legal entities and individuals; investment projects; currency dealing operations; non-traditional operations of commercial banks. Lending to legal entities and individuals is the main type of active operations of a commercial bank.

Depending on the subject of lending, loans are: 1) state; 2) commercial; 3) personal; 4) international.

In addition to these forms of credit, bank credit stands out as the main form of modern credit.

However, the types of loans differ not only according to the subjects of their receipt, but also according to other criteria. These include: the connection between credit and capital movements; scope of application of the loan; credit term; payment of the loan; loan security.

Based on the connection between credit and the movement of capital, it can be divided into two types: money loans and capital loans. A loan of money is, as a rule, associated with consumer or other purposes, when the loan does not bring an increase in the social product, but is spent and repaid from already created savings. A capital loan, on the contrary, does not involve “eating up” the product, but increasing it; in this case, the borrower is obliged to use the loan in such a way as to obtain a new value with its help, and not only repay the loan, but also pay the loan interest. A capital loan is the most typical type of bank loan.

According to the scope of application, loans are divided into loans in the sphere of production and in the sphere of circulation. For modern Russian practice, it is more typical to invest funds not in the production sector, as is customary from the position of a healthy economy, but in the circulation sector, where the turnover and profitability of operations is higher than in the production sector.

Therefore, unfortunately, the loan portfolios of modern Russian banks consist almost entirely of short-term loans with a predominant concentration in the field of trade and purchasing business.

Of course, this state of affairs is associated with the state in which the Russian economy is currently located, but, nevertheless, this poses a real threat of bankruptcy, since, according to the analysis of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, most of the bankrupt banks pursued a similar credit policy and had a similar structure of their loan portfolio.

Depending on the term, bank loans are divided into short-term, long-term and medium-term.

Traditionally, modern credit business is predominantly short-term in nature. From the perspective of many market economy countries, short-term loans are loans whose term does not exceed one year. They mainly serve the circulation of working capital and the current needs of clients.

Long-term loans include loans with terms exceeding 6 years. These loans serve the needs for funds necessary for the formation of fixed capital, financial assets, as well as some types of working capital.

Medium-term loans are loans whose term of use ranges from 1 to 6 years. The scope of their application coincides with servicing needs through long-term credit.

Among the criteria for classifying bank loans, loan repayment is not the least important. Based on this criterion, we can select bank loans with market interest rates, increased and preferential. The market price of a loan is the price that is formed in the market at the moment, based on supply and demand, for various types of bank loans. In conditions of inflation, this is a fairly flexible price, tending to increase. Loans with an increased interest rate, as a rule, arise due to the high risk of lending to the client, violation of the terms of the loan, forecast of an increase in the cost of credit resources, etc. Loans provided on preferential interest terms are an element of a differentiated approach to lending and arise in relationships with shareholders, when refinancing centralized loans of the issuing bank, lending to bank employees.

Loan collateral. An important element of lending and a criterion for classifying bank loans is their security. In this regard, loans may be directly secured, indirectly secured or unsecured. In international practice, loans are often divided into secured, unsecured and partially secured.

In global banking practice, other classification criteria can be seen. Thus, in most countries, loans are divided into two blocks: loans to legal entities and loans to individuals. If loans of the first block are provided for production purposes (for example, to expand production and sell a product), then loans of the second block serve the personal needs of the population. Such a classification turns out to be important both for diversifying the risk of credit investments and for organizing lending (the procedure for issuing, processing, repaying, securing a loan, etc.).

Bank loans are also detailed according to other, “smaller” characteristics. They are divided depending on the currency used in the lending process (rubles, dollars, German marks, French francs, etc.), depending on whether the loan debt is limited or not, constantly renewable (revolving) and interruptible loans , and so on.

A serious reason for identifying a special group of loans is their size. In global and domestic banking practice, so-called “large” loans are regulated.” The category of large loans in Russia includes loans, the size of which to one borrower (or group of borrowers) exceeds 5% of the bank’s capital.

The implementation of investment projects with commercial banks involves activities aimed at developing and implementing strategies for managing an investment portfolio, achieving an optimal combination of direct and portfolio investments in order to generate profit, maintaining an acceptable level of banking risk and liquidity of the bank’s balance sheet.

Direct investment is the direct investment of funds in production, the acquisition of real assets. Portfolio investments are carried out in the form of purchasing securities or providing funds on a long-term loan. The bank's income from investment operations consists of interest on securities, an increase in their market value, commissions, as well as the difference between the purchase price and the sale price of the security.

Currency dealing. Commercial banks are a natural intermediary between the demand and supply of foreign currency. Therefore, the bank's task in this area is to provide its clients with the opportunity to convert their assets denominated in one of the currencies into holdings in another currency. Such conversion is carried out through operations on spot and forward terms, i.e., during each business day, the bank seeks to purchase foreign currency at the most favorable, from its point of view, exchange rates for the purpose of its subsequent sale for profit.

Non-traditional operations of commercial banks include operations that can be performed by organizations other than commercial banks. These include: settlement and cash services; trust transactions; leasing; factoring; issuance of guarantees and sureties; collection services, etc.

Banks receive income from these operations either in the form of commissions or in the form of service fees.

III. ECONOMIC STANDARDS FOR THE ACTIVITY OF A COMMERCIAL BANK

The security of a credit institution is largely determined by the extent to which its activities meet certain economic parameters (established economic standards). These include norms that ensure the economic stability of credit institutions by maintaining the minimum size and adequacy of the bank's capital, its liquidity and solvency, and risk regulation when performing certain banking operations 1 . The features of these standards are that they: may change depending on economic conditions (the Central Bank of the Russian Federation is obliged to announce upcoming changes to the standards no later than a month before their entry into force; changes in individual of them, for example, the minimum amount of equity capital, the Central Bank The Russian Federation notifies banks at least 3 years before its introduction); are established taking into account international standards and on the basis of consultations with banks, banking associations and unions; have a special national character, their list, quantitative parameters of each of them differ, for example, from pan-European norms; are recorded in special methods of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation; are quite stable (some of them do not change for several years); differentiated by types of banks.

With the adoption in 1990 of the RSFSR Law “On the Central Bank of the RSFSR (Bank of Russia),” the Bank of Russia revised the system of economic standards that existed before that time. In accordance with the Law, the Bank of Russia expanded the range of economic standards, introduced their division into basic (mandatory) and estimated (indicative), and established differentiated levels of maximum values ​​of these indicators depending on the type, order and year of creation of the bank.

Starting from April 1991, in connection with the introduction of Instruction of the Central Bank of the RSFSR No. 1, all commercial banks began to calculate 10 indicators that can be divided into 4 groups: the first group characterized the bank’s capital adequacy; the second group is the limitation of the bank’s liabilities; third - liquidity indicators of the bank's balance sheet; the fourth group is the maximum amount of risk per borrower 1 .

The adoption in April 1995 of the new version of the Federal Law “On the Central Bank of the Russian Federation (Bank of Russia)” made certain changes to the above-described system for assessing bank liquidity.

Firstly, the new law significantly changed the set of economic standards established centrally. Secondly, uniform criteria levels of economic standards have been introduced in relation to different types of banks. Thirdly, the division of economic standards into mandatory and evaluative has been eliminated. Fourthly, the methodology for calculating individual indicators and their maximum values ​​are close to international standards.

The new system of economic standards came into force on April 1, 1996 after the publication of new Instruction No. 1 of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, which defines the specific mechanism for its application. Subsequently, the content of this Instruction was clarified and changes were made to the main ones related to the transition of commercial banks from January 1, 1998 to a new Chart of Accounts.

Let's consider the main provisions of the current system of economic standards for the activities of credit institutions.

The economic standards include 2: the minimum amount of authorized capital; capital adequacy ratio; liquidity standards; the maximum amount of risk per borrower or group of related borrowers; maximum size of large credit risks; maximum risk per creditor (depositor); the maximum amount of loans, guarantees and guarantees provided by a credit institution to its participants (shareholders, shareholders) and insiders; the maximum amount of attracted monetary contributions (deposits) from the population; the maximum amount of the bank's bill obligations; standards for the use of credit institutions' own funds to acquire shares (shares) of other legal entities.

The authorized capital of a bank constitutes the core of its own capital, therefore the requirement to increase the minimum amount of authorized capital for newly created banks is a prerequisite for strengthening their capital base, and therefore increasing the liquidity of banks. For newly created credit institutions, the minimum amount of authorized capital was established as of January 1, 1998 in an amount equivalent to ECU 4.0 million; as of July 1, 1998, ECU 5 million was equivalent.

Accordingly, the requirement for the minimum amount of the bank's own funds (the sum of the authorized capital, funds and retained earnings) is increased, which was established in an amount equivalent to ECU 5 million (starting from January 1, 1999).

The capital adequacy ratio (N1) reflects the ratio of equity capital to risk-weighted assets.

However, when calculating this indicator, the following changes: a) the methodology for calculating equity capital; b) classification of assets by risk level; c) levels of risk coefficients.

Equity capital is calculated as follows: core + additional capital - the amount of the under-created reserve for possible losses on loans for 2-4 risk groups - the amount of the under-created reserve for the depreciation of investments in securities - loans, guarantees, sureties provided by the bank to shareholders, participants and insiders in excess corresponding limits - excess of costs for the acquisition of tangible assets over own sources - overdue accounts receivable for more than 30 days - bank investments in shares of subsidiaries and dependent business companies, as well as investments in the capital of resident credit institutions - subordinated loans provided by resident credit institutions.

To determine the amount of total risk of assets (Ar), 5 groups of assets are introduced, differing in the degree of risk 1 .

The main composition of these groups is given in the table below.

The formula for calculating the indicator characterizing capital adequacy (H1) is as follows:

TO

H1 =——————————————— x 100

Ar – Rc – Rk –Rd + KRV + KRS

where K is equity;

Ap – the sum of risk-weighted assets;

Rts - the total amount of the created reserve for the depreciation of securities;

Rk - the amount of the created reserve for possible loan losses;

Рд - the amount of the created reserve for possible losses on other assets and on settlements with debtors;

KRV - the amount of credit risk to off-balance sheet transactions of the bank (except for forward transactions);

KRS - the amount of credit risk for derivatives transactions.

This classification of assets by risk level is close to the recommendations of the Basel Committee on Banking Regulation and Supervision, adopted in July 1998 2 .

The minimum acceptable value of N1 was set in the amount (%): from the balance sheet as of 02/01/99 - 8% for banks with a capital of 5 million ECU and above and 9% for banks with a capital of 1 to 5 million ECU; from the balance sheet as of 01/01/2000 - 10 and 11%, respectively.

Table

Groups of assets by risk level

Asset groups	Risk coefficient, %
1st group
Funds in correspondent and deposit accounts with the Central Bank of the Russian Federation
Mandatory reserves listed in the Central Bank of the Russian Federation
Investments in bonds of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, not encumbered with obligations
Investments in government debt obligations of countries from the “group of developed countries”, not encumbered by an obligation
Accounts of ORTS settlement centers in institutions of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation
Cash and equivalent funds, precious metals in storage and in transit
2nd group
Loans guaranteed by the Government of the Russian Federation
Loans secured by precious metals bullion
Funds in ORTS settlement centers
Investments in government debt obligations and bonds of internal and external currency loans of the Russian Federation, not encumbered with obligations
3rd group
Investments in debt obligations of entities
Funds in correspondent accounts in non-resident banks of countries from the “group of developed countries” in hard currency
Loans provided to non-resident banks from the “group of developed countries”
Loans secured by securities of constituent entities of the Russian Federation and local governments in a part equal to the market value of these securities
Loans secured by government securities of the Russian Federation in a part equal to the market value of these securities
4-group
Funds in accounts with resident banks of the Russian Federation
Funds in accounts in non-resident banks not from the “group of developed countries”, excluding neighboring countries
Securities for resale
5th group
All other assets

Commercial bank liquidity standards include: instant liquidity ratio (N2); current liquidity ratio (N3); long-term liquidity ratio (N4); general liquidity ratio (N5); liquidity ratio for transactions with precious metals (N14). The first three of them characterize the conjugation of assets and liabilities in amounts and terms.

The instant liquidity ratio (N2) is the ratio of the amount of highly liquid assets to the amount of bank liabilities on demand accounts:

H2 = LAm/OBm x 100%

where LAm are highly liquid assets, which include cash balances and equivalent funds; balances of credit institutions' funds in a correspondent account with the Central Bank of the Russian Federation; deposits placed with the Central Bank of the Russian Federation; bank funds deposited for settlements by checks; funds from credit institutions for cash services of branches; accounts of participants of the Republican Center for Securities Markets; deposits placed with non-resident banks on demand and for settlements using bank cards; other placed funds in terms of demand, as well as investments in government debt obligations and obligations of internal and external foreign currency loans, which are not collateral for loans received.

OBM – demand liabilities, defined as balances in correspondent accounts of credit institutions - correspondents, including in hard currency + balances in the accounts of participants of the RTSRB + client funds for brokerage operations with securities + deposits and other attracted funds of banks on demand and for settlements using bank cards + overdue debt on received interbank loans and overdue interest on them + part of the funds in settlements (letters of credit for payment, settlement checks, etc.) + balances on settlement, current accounts of clients + demand deposits of individuals + other raised funds on demand + bills of exchange and bankers' acceptances on demand issued by a credit institution + other obligations (obligations under letters of credit, to the budget for taxes and extra-budgetary funds, to suppliers and contractors and other creditors, with payment within 30 days).

The minimum permissible value of H2 is set within 20%. The current liquidity ratio (N3) is calculated using the formula

H3= LAT/OVt x 100%,

LAT – bank’s current liquid assets;

OBT – bank obligations on demand and for a period of 30 days.

The bank's current liquid assets (LAt) include highly liquid assets, as well as loans and deposits placed with banks for up to 30 days; loans provided to banks and clients for a period of up to 30 days, bills of exchange discounted by the bank with a maturity on demand and up to 30 days, debt to the bank due within the next 30 days. Current liabilities (CLO) include: liabilities on demand and liabilities that expire within the next 30 days. These include: deposits with a period from one day to one month; bills issued by the bank with a presentation period of 30 days; loans received from other banks (including the Central Bank of the Russian Federation), with a repayment period of 30 days; guarantees of this bank with a maturity date within the next 30 days; obligations due in more than 30 days.

The minimum acceptable value of N3 is set from the balance sheet as of February 1, 1999 at 70%.

The long-term liquidity ratio N4 is calculated using the formula

H3= Krd/(K+OD) x 100%,

where Krd – loans issued by the bank, deposits placed with a remaining maturity of over a year, as well as 50% of guarantees issued by the bank with a maturity of over 1 year;

K – bank’s own capital;

OD – long-term liabilities of the bank (maturity period over 1 year).

Long-term liabilities include: the bank's liabilities for deposits and loans received by the bank, as well as for the bank's debt obligations traded on the market with a maturity of over 1 year.

The maximum permissible value of H4 is set at 120%.

The general liquidity ratio N5, reflecting the percentage of liquid assets and total assets, is calculated using the formula

H5 = Lat/(A-Ro) x 100%

where Lat – current liquid assets;

At - the adjusted amount of all assets on the balance sheet is defined as the total amount of assets on the balance sheet, with the exception of its own shares of the authorized capital purchased by the bank (account 105); amounts of overdue interest on transactions with precious metals (accounts 20319 and 20320); funds reflecting settlements with branches and between divisions of one credit institution (accounts 30302, 30304 and 30306); amounts of overdue interest on interbank loans provided (account 325); settlements with the budget for financing capital investments (accounts 40104, 40109, 40111); amounts of overdue interest on loans provided (account 459); parts of deferred expenses (accounts 01404, 61405, 61406, 61407, 6140X); the amount of bank expenses (account 702); the amount of bank losses (account 704); amounts of profit use (account 705); part of the amount of unpaid interest on bills;

Ro – required reserves of a credit institution.

Liquidity ratio for transactions with precious metals
(H14) is calculated by the formula:

H14 = LAdm/OVdm,

where LAdm are highly liquid assets in precious metals in physical form;

OVDM – obligations in precious metals on demand and with a demand period in the next 30 days.

The minimum acceptable value of H14 is set at 10%. As noted above, a bank’s liquidity is largely determined by the quality of its assets, which in turn depends on their diversification. To regulate the credit risk associated with providing large sums to bank clients, standards N6, N7, N9, N9.1, N10, N10.1 were introduced.

The maximum amount of risk per borrower or group of related borrowers is regulated by the N6 indicator, the calculation formula for which is

H6 = Krz/K x100%,

where Krz is the total amount of the bank’s claims to the borrower or a group of related borrowers for loans, including overdue, discounted bills, loans, and amounts not collected by the bank under its guarantees. The specified requirements are included in the calculation taking into account the degree of risk (in accordance with the calculation of Ap);

The K value additionally includes: the amount of credit risk for instruments reflected in off-balance sheet accounts (for example, guarantees and sureties issued by the bank; credit lines not used by clients; uncovered irrevocable letters of credit issued or confirmed by the bank, etc.); the amount of credit risk on futures transactions concluded with these persons.

Interrelated borrowers mean legal entities or individuals-borrowers that are economically and legally related to each other, i.e. having common property, mutual guarantees and obligations or controlling each other’s property, as well as the combination of leadership positions by one individual. Control means the direct or indirect (through subsidiaries) ownership of more than 50% of the votes of a party (person) or the ability to control more than half of the votes by special agreement with its other shareholders or according to its charter.

The maximum permissible value of H6 is set at 25%.

The maximum size of large credit risks N7 characterizes the ratio of the total amount of large loans and the bank’s equity capital. A large loan is considered to be the total amount of claims against one borrower (Krz) exceeding 5% of the bank’s equity capital. The formula for calculating this indicator:

H7 = Kskr/K x100%,

where Kcr is the total amount of credit risks;

K is the bank's own capital.

The maximum permissible value of H7 is set to 800%.

The maximum amount of credit risk per shareholder (participant) N9 will be determined by the formula

H9 = Kra/K x 100%,

where Kra is the value of the Krz indicator in relation to those shareholders (participants) whose contribution to the authorized capital of the bank exceeds 5% of its value registered by the Central Bank of the Russian Federation;

K is the bank's own capital.

The maximum permissible value of H9 is set at 20%).

The total value of large credit risks for shareholders (participants) of the bank N9.1 is determined as the total value of Krz credit risks for all shareholders (participants), whose contribution to the authorized capital exceeds 5% of the registered value.

The maximum permissible value of the N9.1 standard is set at 50%.

The maximum amount of loans provided by the organization to its insiders. as well as issued in their favor, is regulated by the N10 standard, which is calculated as follows:

H10 = Kri/K x 100%,

where Kri is the total amount of the bank’s claims (including off-balance sheet), weighted taking into account risk, in relation to the bank insider and related persons;

K – total capital of the credit institution.

In accordance with international practice, insiders include individuals, shareholders with more than 5% of shares, directors (president, chairman, their deputies), board members, members of the credit committee, heads of subsidiaries and parent structures and other persons who can influence the decision about the issuance of a loan, as well as relatives of insiders and former insiders.

The maximum permissible value of N10 per insider and related persons is set at 2%. The total amount of loans and borrowings issued to insiders (N10.1) cannot exceed 3% of the bank’s equity capital.

Regulation of deposit risks that affect bank liquidity is carried out in Russian practice through the introduction of standards N8, N11, N11.1, and N13.

The maximum amount of risk per creditor (depositor) N8 in accordance with Instruction No. 1 of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation reflects the ratio of the amount of deposits, deposits or loans received by the bank, guarantees and sureties, account balances of one or related creditors (depositors) and the bank’s equity capital :

H8 = Ovkl/K x100%,

where Ovkl is the total amount of the bank’s liabilities to one or a group of related creditors (depositors);

K – own capital.

When calculating the bank's liabilities (Ovkl), it is necessary to keep in mind the following: the amount of the deposit, the deposit (except for the demand deposit), the amount of the loan received should be determined taking into account the following risk coefficients, set as a percentage depending on the period remaining until repayment: up to 6 months - 100%; from 6 months to 1 year – 80%; over 1 year – 50%; Fund balances on correspondent, settlement (current) accounts, as well as demand deposit accounts are calculated using the average chronological formula.

The maximum amount of attracted monetary deposits from the population (H11) characterizes the ratio of the total amount of deposits from citizens and the amount of the bank’s equity capital. This figure should not exceed 100%.

Standard N11.1 regulates the maximum amount of bank liabilities to non-resident banks and non-resident financial organizations. The formula for calculating this indicator:

Н11 = He/K x100%,

where He is the total amount of the bank’s liabilities in rubles, including subordinated loans (loans) in the part not included in the calculation of the bank’s equity capital, foreign currency and precious metals to non-resident banks and non-resident financial organizations;

K is the bank's own capital.

The maximum permissible value of H11.1 is set at 400%).

The risk standard for own bill obligations N13 is calculated using the formula

H13 =VO/K x 100%,

where VO are bills of exchange and bankers' acceptances issued by the bank, as well as 50% of the bank's off-balance sheet liabilities from the endorsement of bills, avals and bill intermediation.

The maximum permissible value of NC is set to 100%.

Compliance with the above standards is mandatory for banks. Their compliance is used to judge how reliable the bank is, how safe it is from the position of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, and how safe the risks of its activities are for its clients who have entrusted their deposits to it.

Regulations emanating from the Central Bank of the Russian Federation and promoting the security of credit institutions also cover other parties. The law obliges the Central Bank of the Russian Federation to establish mandatory rules for credit institutions for conducting banking operations, accounting, preparation and presentation of accounting and statistical reporting, and has the right to present qualification requirements to the heads of the bank’s executive bodies and its chief accountant. According to the legislation, the Central Bank of the Russian Federation establishes control over the shareholders of a commercial bank, may require information about their financial position, business reputation, requires notification of the acquisition by other legal entities or individuals or their group of more than 5% of shares (shares) of a credit institution, preliminary approval in relation to those who acquires more than 20% of shares (shares) of a given bank.

CONCLUSION

Traditional operations for the bank are: cash settlements, passive and active operations.

Cash payments within the national economy can be in cash or non-cash form. With non-cash payments, entries are made on bank accounts when money is debited from the payer's account and credited to the recipient's account.

Non-cash payments are carried out through bank accounts, which are opened for clients to store and transfer funds after submitting the relevant documents. Bank accounts can be of the following types: current accounts (settlement sub-accounts), current, deposit, foreign currency. Accounts can be simple or current.

Traditionally, a bank is viewed as an institution that accepts deposits and makes loans. These operations are either passive or active.

Passive bank operations are operations to mobilize funds. Funds received as a result of passive operations are the basis for further banking activities. Active operations of banks are operations involving the placement of funds.

The result of the bank's passive operations is the formation of banking resources, which are reflected in the liability side of the bank's balance sheet. Sources of banking resources can be own, borrowed and attracted funds. The main source of formation of banking resources are customer deposits (raised funds).

Customer contributions or deposits can be: perpetual (on demand), fixed-term (obligations with a certain period), conditional (funds can be withdrawn upon the occurrence of pre-agreed conditions).

Funds held in demand accounts are intended for making current payments. On these accounts, banks pay either extremely low interest or no interest at all. This is due to the fact that demand deposits leave banks virtually no opportunity to refinance funds and use them for a long time, and also because banks take on the work of providing cash and settlement services to clients.

Another type of deposit is time deposits, i.e. attracted by the bank for a certain period. These deposits pay higher interest, depending on the term of the deposit, since banks can manage the depositor's funds for a longer period of time and have the opportunity to reinvest them. Most often, funds are placed on time deposits for a specific purpose, for example, amounts intended for the purchase of equipment in six months.

An intermediate position between time and perpetual deposits is occupied by a savings deposit, opened for the purpose of accumulating or preserving monetary savings (usually these are transactions with the population).

A variety of time deposits are deposit and savings certificates. “Certificate” means a written certificate from the issuing bank (the bank that issued the certificate) about the deposit of funds. The certificate certifies the right of the depositor or his successor to receive the deposit amount with interest after a certain period. A deposit certificate is issued only to legal entities, a savings certificate - only to individuals living in Russia.

Passive operations of a commercial bank include loans received from other banks, through which the borrowed credit resources of a commercial bank are formed. The object of interbank credit (IBC) is the free credit resources of financially stable banks. In order for these resources to generate income, banks place them with other borrowing banks. The terms for repayment of credit resources range from one month to several years.

Passive operations of commercial banks are associated with the formation and development of the bank's own capital. Banks' own funds include the authorized capital, reserve fund, other funds formed from deductions from the bank's profits, insurance reserves, as well as profits not distributed during the year.

Bank assets consist of capital and current items. Capital items of assets are land, buildings owned by the bank; current – ​​bank cash, discounted bills and other short-term liabilities, loans and investments.

Up to 80% of banking assets are accounted for by accounting and lending or active credit operations and operations with securities.

Loan operations - lending to enterprises and households - belong to traditional types of banking services. It is no coincidence that a bank is called a “credit company.” The largest part of banks' assets is still placed in lending operations.

Classification of bank loans is carried out according to several criteria: depending on the recipient, goals, terms, security, etc.

Economic standards include: the minimum amount of authorized capital; capital adequacy ratio; liquidity standards; the maximum amount of risk per borrower or group of related borrowers; maximum size of large credit risks; maximum risk per creditor (depositor); the maximum amount of loans, guarantees and guarantees provided by a credit institution to its participants (shareholders, shareholders) and insiders; the maximum amount of attracted monetary contributions (deposits) from the population; the maximum amount of the bank's bill obligations; standards for the use of credit institutions' own funds to acquire shares (shares) of other legal entities.

LIST OF SOURCES USED

Law of the Russian Federation “On Amendments and Additions to the Law of the RSFSR “On Banks and Banking Activities in the RSFSR” dated February 3, 1996 // Money and Credit. - 1996. - No. 2.


Law of the Russian Federation “On Amendments and Additions to the Law of the RSFSR “On the Central Bank of the RSFSR (Bank of Russia)” dated April 26, 1995 // Money and Credit. - 1995. -No. 5; Economics and life. - 1995. - No. 19.


Law of the Russian Federation “On the monetary system of the Russian Federation” dated September 23, 1992 // Gazette of the Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR and the Supreme Council of the RSFSR. -1992.-No. 43.


Basel Committee on Banking Supervision: Collection of documents and materials / Comp. Yu. V. Kuznets. - M.: Personnel Training Center of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, 1997.

Ivanov V.V. Bank reliability analysis. - M.: Russian Business Literature, 1996.

Makarova G. P. Banking marketing system: Textbook. allowance. - M.: Finstatinform, 1997.


MirkinYa. M. Banking operations. - M.: Infra-M, 1996.


Molchanov A.V. Commercial bank in modern Russia: Theory and practice. - M.: Finance and Statistics, 1996.


On approval of the Rules for maintaining accounting records in credit institutions located on the territory of the Russian Federation and additions and amendments to the Chart of Accounts for accounting in credit institutions of the Russian Federation. Order of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation dated June 18, 1997 No. 02-263 // Bulletin of the Bank of Russia. - 1997. - No. 49.


Shirinskaya E. B. Operations of commercial banks: Russian and foreign experience. - M.: Finance and Statistics, 1995.


Economic analysis of bank activities: Textbook. allowance. -M.: Infra-M, 1996.

TEST

by discipline"Money, credit, banks"

on the topic of:"Active operations of commercial banks"

StudentChivileva A.V.

(Full Name)

facultyAccounting - statistical

well2 VO 3rd year of study

zach. bookNo. 08UBD62572

Teacher: Ph.D., Associate ProfessorAnokhina N.V.

(title, degree, last name, first name, patronymic)

Chelyabinsk – 201 0.

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………....3

1. Concept, meaning and structure of active operations……...…………………4

2. Classification of assets by risk, profitability, liquidity………………….. .8

3. Characteristics of loan and stock operations of commercial banks…..…10

CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………...19

LIST OF REFERENCES….………………………...21

Introduction

Commercial banks are a universal credit institution created to attract and place funds on the terms of repayment and payment, as well as to carry out many other banking operations.

Commercial banks carry out active and passive operations. These operations are like two opposite sides of a dialectical unity. Without passive operations, active operations are impossible, and without active operations, passive operations become meaningless. But without exception, all banking operations carried out pursue one goal - increasing income and reducing expenses.

This paper will examine the active operations of commercial banks, which are of paramount importance for the activities of banks, since the processes of formation of credit resources and their use are closely interrelated.

Active banking operations are operations through which banks place the resources at their disposal in order to generate the necessary income and ensure their liquidity.

The purpose of the work is to study the essence and structure of active operations of commercial banks.

Based on the purpose of the work, the following tasks were set:

1) Identify the connection between active operations of commercial banks and passive ones;

2) Reveal the importance of active operations for an individual bank and for the socio-economic development of the country;

3) Study the classification of assets of commercial banks;

4) Consider the characteristics of loan operations of commercial banks according to their economic content and purpose, category of borrower, security, terms and methods of repayment, form of loan issuance, and also characterize the stock operations of commercial banks.

1. Concept, meaning and structure of active operations

Banks are the centers where business partnerships primarily begin and end. The health of the economy depends decisively on the efficient and competent activities of banks. Without a developed network of banks operating on a commercial basis, the desire to create a real and effective market mechanism remains only a wish.

Bank is a credit organization that has the exclusive right to carry out the following banking operations in aggregate: attracting funds from individuals and legal entities on deposit, placing these funds on its own behalf and at its own expense on the terms of repayment, payment, urgency, opening and maintaining bank accounts of individuals and legal entities.

Operations involving the placement of banking resources are called active. Banking assets, like liabilities, consist of capital and current items. Capital assets - land, buildings owned by the bank; current - bank cash, bills of exchange and other short-term liabilities, loans and securities.

The active operations of a commercial bank include: short-term and long-term lending to production, social, investment and scientific activities of enterprises and organizations; providing consumer loans to the population; purchase of securities; leasing; factoring; innovative financing and lending; equity participation with bank funds in the economic activities of enterprises; loans provided to other banks.

The role of active operations (operations for the placement of banking resources) for any commercial bank is very large. Active operations ensure the profitability and liquidity of the bank, i.e. allow you to achieve two main goals of the activities of commercial banks. Active operations are also of great economic importance. It is with the help of active operations that banks can direct the funds released in the process of economic activity to those participants in economic turnover who need capital. Thus ensuring the flow of capital into the most promising sectors of the economy, promoting the growth of industrial investments, the introduction of innovations, the implementation of restructuring" and the stable growth of industrial production, the expansion of housing construction. Bank loans to the population play a large social role.

The activities of commercial banks are related to the need to create conditions for sustainable growth of the country's economy. The fact is that without a bank loan it is impossible to carry out measures for the socio-economic development of production, since in order to accumulate the necessary funds through calculations from profits or from external sources, a long time is required. This, on the one hand, would delay the implementation of a much-needed event, and on the other hand, the accumulated funds would lie idle until the required amount was reached, which is not economical. At the same time, another part of enterprises and organizations or citizens may have temporarily free funds, which also lie idle and which can be painlessly transferred as a loan to someone who needs them, on the terms of return and charging interest.

Active operations can be divided into four main types:

1) cash transactions;

2) loan operations;

3) calculated;

4) investment and stock;

5) warranty.

Loan operations are operations for the provision (issuance) of funds to the borrower on the basis of urgency, repayment and payment. Loan transactions related to the purchase (discounting) of bills of exchange or the acceptance of bills of exchange as collateral are accounting (accounting and lending) operations.

Settlement operations are operations for crediting and debiting funds from customer accounts, including for payment of their obligations to counterparties. Commercial banks make payments according to the rules, forms and standards established by the Bank of Russia, in the absence of rules for conducting certain types of payments - by agreement among themselves. When performing international payments - in the manner established by federal laws and rules adopted in international banking practice.

Commercial banks and the Bank of Russia are obliged to transfer client funds and credit funds to his account no later than the next business day after receiving the corresponding payment document. In case of untimely or incorrect crediting of funds to or debiting from the client’s account, the credit institution and the Bank of Russia pay interest on the amount of these funds at the official interest rate of the Bank of Russia.

Cash transactions are operations for receiving and issuing cash. More broadly, cash transactions can be defined as operations related to the movement of cash, as well as the formation, placement and use of funds in various active bank accounts (including the “Cash” account and correspondent accounts in other banks) and accounts of commercial bank clients.

Investment operations are operations where a bank invests its funds in securities and shares of non-banking structures for the purpose of joint economic, financial and commercial activities, as well as placed in the form of time deposits in other credit institutions. The peculiarity of investment operations of a commercial bank from credit operations is that the initiative to carry out the former comes from the bank itself, and not from its client. This is the investment activity of the bank itself.

Stock transactions are transactions with securities (other than investment ones).

Stock transactions include:

1) transactions with bills (accounting and rediscounting operations, operations on protest of bills, collection, domiciliation, acceptance, endorsement of bills, issuance of bill orders, storage of bills, selling them at auction);

2) transactions with securities listed on stock exchanges.

Guarantee operations - operations where the bank issues a guarantee (guarantee) for payment of the client’s debt to a third party upon the occurrence of certain conditions; They also bring income to banks in the form of commissions.

Up to 80% of banking assets are accounted for by accounting and lending operations and investments in securities. Banks in industrialized countries are characterized by multidirectional movements of these two types of operations. Under favorable economic conditions, the share of accounting and lending operations, which bring banks the bulk of their profits, increases, and the share of investments in securities (under normal conditions, less profitable operations) decreases. Economic crises, inflation, and disruptions in business activity reduce the possibilities of bank lending to the economy and lead, accordingly, to a decrease in the number of accounting and lending operations and an increase in investments in government securities.

2. Classification of assets by risk, profitability, liquidity

There is a certain relationship between profitability, riskiness of assets and their liquidity. The riskier an asset is, the more income it can bring to the bank (profitability serves as a payment for risk) and the lower its level of liquidity (a risky asset is more difficult to sell). The riskiest assets are usually both the highest yielding and the least liquid.

commercial loan bank

Active operations are operations that allocate resources. Their importance for any commercial bank is very great. Active operations ensure the profitability and liquidity of the bank, i.e., they allow you to solve the two main goals of a commercial bank.

Active operations can be divided into:

1) Loan operations. Loan operations - provision of funds to a bank client in the lending process on the basis of urgency, repayment and payment.

The classification of loan operations is based on the following criteria: economic content of the operation, type of loan, objects, terms, industry, type of accounts opened, the procedure for calculating and repaying interest, the procedure for issuing and repaying the loan, documenting the operation, the amount of risk, the nature of the loan security, the level of profitability . Operations that contribute to the client's costs in the sphere of production or the client's costs in the sphere of circulation determine the economic content of loan operations.

Based on lending objects, loan operations are divided into operations that ensure the direction of funds into fixed assets (for construction, reconstruction, acquisition of fixed assets) and circulating assets (temporary or permanent inventories of inventories, inventories of finished products, unpaid claims, accounts receivable, temporary needs) funds , as well as seasonal and non-seasonal.

Depending on the period, loan operations are: short-term, long-term, extended and overdue. Depending on the direction of funds to a particular industry, loan operations can be trade, intermediary, construction, industrial, etc.

Depending on the type of accounts opened, loan operations are divided into operations: on a simple loan account, on a call account, on a current account, on an overdraft, on an account for an open credit line.

According to the order of issuance, loan operations are divided into operations with a one-time issuance and issuance in parts with an increase in the amount of debt. Depending on the documents drawn up, loan transactions can be carried out: under a loan agreement or under a loan agreement; be one-time or permanent; secured or blank (without security).

Loan operations are classified into risky and non-risky depending on the sector of the economy, purpose, purpose and quality of the loan, credit documentation and collateral. By the nature of loan collateral, loan operations are classified as secured and unsecured, extensive, liquid and with high-quality collateral or insufficient collateral, illiquid with questionable quality. Based on their level of profitability, they are divided into high-yield, low-yield and non-income-generating operations. Ensuring loan repayment is determined by: sources of loan repayment; the procedure for their repayment; documentation establishing the economic and legal mechanism for repayment of the loan and interest.

Sources of loan repayment are divided into primary and secondary. The primary source for legal entities and individuals is cash receipts in the form of proceeds from the sale of products, provision of services, or in the form of wages, fees, etc. The procedure for repaying loan debts and interest with these funds by depositing cash or non-cash debiting from the client’s account, the repayment terms in parts or in one amount are provided for in the bank’s loan agreement with the client and are secured by urgent obligations issued by the borrower at the time of receipt of the loan. The loan agreement and urgent obligations in this case serve as the legal basis for the bank to carry out the loan repayment procedure. Using only the primary source to ensure loan repayment is practiced by banks for financially reliable borrowers, clients with a high reputation for creditworthiness. In relation to borrowers whose creditworthiness the bank doubts, primary sources are supplemented by secondary ones.

Secondary sources of loan repayment include: proceeds from the sale of pledged property; transfer of funds by guarantors or guarantors; receiving funds from an insurance policy; receipt of funds in the order of assignment of the client to the bank. The use of secondary sources is possible with appropriate legal registration, when, in addition to the loan agreement, collateral agreements, assignment agreements or provision of a letter of guarantee, as well as an insurance policy, are concluded between the bank and the borrower. The bank has the right to use secondary sources only after the client fails to fulfill his payment obligations on the principal and interest at the expense of primary sources. The implementation of the creditor's collateral rights is carried out by decision of the arbitration court.

• 2) Settlement operations. Settlement operations are among the most important banking operations. They include collection, transfer and letter of credit operations. Settlement operations - operations for crediting and debiting funds from customer accounts, including for payment of their obligations to counterparties. Commercial banks make settlements according to the rules, forms and standards established by the Bank of Russia, in the absence of rules for conducting certain types of settlements - by agreement among themselves, when performing international settlements - in the manner established by federal laws and rules adopted in international banking practice. Commercial banks and the Bank of Russia are obliged to transfer client funds and credit funds to his account no later than the next business day after receiving the corresponding payment document. In case of untimely or incorrect crediting of funds to or debiting from the client’s account, the credit institution and the Bank of Russia pay interest on the amount of these funds at the official interest rate of the Bank of Russia.
• 3) Cash transactions. The presence of cash assets in the required amount is the most important condition for ensuring the normal functioning of commercial banks that use cash to exchange money, return deposits, meet the demand for loans and cover operating expenses, including wages to staff, payment for various materials and services. The cash reserve depends on: the size of the bank's current liabilities; deadlines for issuing money to clients; settlements with own personnel; business development, etc. Lack of sufficient funds can undermine the authority of the bank. Inflation affects cash holdings. It increases the risk of money devaluation, so it is necessary to put it into circulation as soon as possible and place it in income-generating assets. Due to inflation, more and more cash is needed.

Cash transactions are operations related to the movement of cash, with the formation, placement and use of funds in various active accounts. The importance of bank cash transactions is determined by the fact that the formation of cash in the household, the ratio of funds between various assets, items, and the proportion between the mass of paper, credit bills and billon (change) coins depend on them.

• 4) Investment and stock transactions. In the process of their implementation, the bank acts as an investor, investing resources in securities or acquiring rights to joint business activities. These operations also bring income to the bank through direct participation in the creation of profits.
• 5) Currency transactions. Foreign exchange transactions can be defined as agreements (contracts) concluded in a certain time period on specific terms between participants in the foreign exchange market for the purchase and sale, provision of loans in foreign currencies (currency units of foreign countries and international monetary units, as well as payable in monetary units of foreign countries bills and other securities).

Currency transactions involve the transfer of ownership and use of currency values, as well as a number of other possibilities. The main types of foreign exchange transactions can be distinguished:

• - deposit-short-term (from 1 day to 1 year) operations to attract funds in foreign currency and place them in bank accounts, i.e. currency funds are provided unilaterally;
• - conversion - represent an exchange (purchase and sale) of equivalent amounts at an established (or agreed upon) exchange rate for a specific date. This type of operations on the world market is predominant. The agreed exchange rate (exchange rate) is the ratio between the currencies of different countries (the price of one country's currency expressed in another country's currency). Agents of the foreign exchange market are banks, international credit and financial organizations, currency exchanges, brokerage firms, various funds and foreign trade companies, and individuals. But the bulk of foreign exchange transactions are carried out by commercial banks; they are the main intermediaries in the global foreign exchange market.

Currency transactions can be called an independent line of business, the scope of which is as follows: international investments (international capital movements), international trade in goods, services, intellectual property products, copyrights; international tourism; international transactions with foreign currency cash. The modern international community is closely dependent on the state of the financial markets and vice versa, therefore, increasing currency dependence makes it necessary to coordinate the monetary policies of different countries in order to stabilize and improve economic viability.

6) Warranty operations. A bank guarantee is an obligation of the guarantor bank, issued on behalf of the client (and at his expense) to pay the recipient of the bank guarantee a sum of money in accordance with the agreement between the client and the recipient. Payment is made upon submission of a written request from the recipient, as well as additional documents specified in the bank guarantee. Unlike a documentary letter of credit and documentary collection, a bank guarantee is not a form of settlement between the parties to an agreement, but a tool designed to ensure the fulfillment of certain obligations of the parties.

Thus, the active operations of the bank are the placement by the bank of its available financial resources in order to put them into circulation and make a profit. The most common forms of such operations are: provision of funds on credit at interest, investments in securities, investments in production. The importance of active operations for any commercial bank is very great. Active operations ensure the profitability and liquidity of the bank, i.e. allow you to solve two main goals of a commercial bank. Active operations are also of great economic importance.

It is with the help of active operations that banks can direct funds released in the process of economic activity to those participants in economic turnover who need capital, ensuring the flow of capital into the most promising sectors of the economy, promoting the growth of industrial investments, the introduction of innovations, restructuring and stable growth of industrial production, expansion of housing construction. Bank loans to the population are of great social importance.

Implemented through their operations. Operations of commercial banks are divided into three groups: passive, active and commission-intermediary (carried out on behalf of the client on a commission basis: collection, settlement, factoring services, etc.).

The division of banking operations into passive and active is based on their influence on the formation and allocation of banking resources. A bank's resources are the amount of funds that it has at its disposal and can be used by it to carry out active operations.

Active operations of commercial banks

Active operations are operations for the placement of banking resources, and their role for any commercial bank is very great. Active operations ensure the profitability and liquidity of the bank, i.e. allow you to achieve two main goals of the activities of commercial banks. Active operations are also of great economic importance.

It is with the help of active operations that banks can direct funds released in the process of economic activity to those participants in economic turnover who need capital, ensuring the flow of capital into the most promising sectors of the economy, promoting the growth of industrial investments, the introduction of innovations, restructuring and stable growth of industrial production, expansion of housing construction. Bank loans to the population play a major social role.

Active operations can be divided into four types:

• cash transactions (cash in the bank's cash desk, funds in accounts with the central bank and in correspondent accounts in the central bank and in correspondent accounts of other banks);
• loan operations;
• purchase of securities;
• investments in fixed assets (land, building, equipment).

Passive operations of commercial banks

Passive operations are operations for the formation of banking resources, which are of great importance for every commercial bank. Firstly, as already noted, the resource base largely determines the capabilities and scale of active operations that ensure the receipt of bank income. Secondly, the stability of banking resources, their size and structure are the most important factors of bank reliability. And finally, the price of the resources received affects the size of bank profits.

It should also be noted the important economic and social role of passive operations of banks. With their help, the mobilization of temporarily free funds of enterprises and the population allows the banking system to satisfy the needs of the economy in fixed and working capital, transform savings into productive investments, and provide consumer loans to the population. And interest on deposits and debt securities of banks at least partially compensates the population for losses from inflation.

Passive operations are divided into two groups:

• on the formation of own resources, which belong directly to the bank and do not require return.
• to raise funds for a time, with the help of which borrowed resources are formed; for operations of the second group, the bank has obligations (to depositors, banks and creditors).

One of the most important features of the structure of banks' liabilities, compared to non-financial enterprises, is the low share of their own resources: usually from 10 to 22%, while in non-financial enterprises it averages from 40 to 50%. However, despite the relatively small share, the bank’s own funds (capital) play a very important role in its activities. They perform three main functions: operational, protective and regulatory.

The operational function is that own funds (capital) serve as a financial resource for the development of the bank’s material base. Without initial capital, not a single bank (as well as any enterprise) can begin to carry out its activities. It is through own funds that machines, equipment, computer equipment, as well as land, buildings and other assets are purchased. Own funds (capital) can also be used to expand the network of branches and branches of the bank, for mergers. The size of equity (capital) ultimately determines the scale of the bank's activities. It is no coincidence that the economic standards for banks’ activities established by the central bank, recommended by the Basel Committee, are based primarily on the amount of the bank’s own funds (capital).

The protective function of the bank's own funds (capital) is to maintain the stability of the latter, ensuring the bank's obligations to depositors and creditors. The bank's own funds (capital) act as an insurance and guarantee fund, which allows the bank to maintain solvency even in the event of unfavorable circumstances, unforeseen expenses and losses that pose a threat to bank liquidity. Since own funds (capital) are resources that are not subject to return, they serve as a reserve to cover the bank's obligations. Within the limits of its own funds (capital), the bank fully guarantees liability for its obligations. Taking this into account, we can talk about the existence of an inverse relationship between the amount of the bank’s own funds (capital) and its exposure to risk. The greater the bank's own funds (capital), the lower the risk of depositors and creditors, the more reliable the bank.

The protective function of the bank’s own funds (capital) is closely related to the concept of “capital adequacy”, i.e. the bank’s ability to repay financial losses using its own funds (capital) without resorting to borrowed resources. This ability is determined by the extent to which the amount of equity (capital) is adequate, i.e. corresponds to the riskiness of banking assets, in other words, to the structure and quality of the latter. This means that the more banking assets are associated with significant risk, the greater the bank's own funds (capital) should be. That is why, in accordance with the recommendations of the Basel Committee, a bank's capital adequacy ratio is defined as the ratio of equity capital to its risk-weighted assets.

The regulatory function of own funds (capital) is that central banks regulate the activities of commercial banks by managing the bank's own funds (capital). Central banks establish, firstly, the minimum amount of equity capital required to obtain a banking license, and, secondly, the capital adequacy ratio. In addition, as already noted, the amount of own funds serves as the basis for most other economic standards for the activities of banks established by central banks.

As a result of passive operations, the cash balances on the passive accounts of the bank's balance sheet increase (they take into account the bank's funds, balances on customer deposit accounts, debt on loans to other banks, bank profits, etc.). Active operations lead to an increase in funds in active accounts (they reflect: cash, bank loans, investments in securities, buildings, equipment, etc.).

There is a close relationship between passive and active operations of a commercial bank. Thus, the size and structure of active operations that generate income are largely determined by the resources available to banks. In this sense, passive operations that form the bank’s resource base are primary in relation to active ones. When providing loans and purchasing securities, banks are forced to constantly monitor the status of liabilities and monitor the timing of payments on obligations to depositors. If there are not enough resources, the bank has to refuse lucrative offers and sell high-yield securities. At the same time, a significant part of bank deposits arises on the basis of active operations when providing loans in non-cash form. The relationship between passive and active operations is also manifested in the fact that bank profit depends on the bank margin, i.e. the difference between the price of banking resources and the profitability of active operations.

For successful operations, the bank must ensure coordination of passive and active operations: on the one hand, avoid a significant discrepancy between the terms of liabilities and assets, for example, issuing long-term loans at the expense of short-term deposits; and on the other hand, do not immobilize short-term resources for a long period in an amount significantly exceeding the stable balance of funds in bank accounts sufficient for regular payments.

There is also a relationship between certain types of liabilities and assets. Thus, opening a bank account for a large client is accompanied by the emergence of close regular ties between the client and the bank. In order not to lose a client, the bank provides him with significant loans, invests in his securities, provides him with a variety of expense services, and performs commission transactions.

Active banking operations are operations through which banks place the resources at their disposal in order to generate the necessary income and ensure their liquidity. Active operations of a commercial bank mean the use of borrowed and own funds on its own behalf to generate profit.

It is with the help of active operations that banks can direct funds released in the process of economic activity to those participants in economic turnover who need capital, ensuring the flow of capital into the most promising sectors of the economy. There is a certain relationship between the profitability and riskiness of assets and their liquidity. The riskier an asset is, the more income it can bring to the bank (profitability serves as a payment for risk) and the lower its level of liquidity (a risky asset is more difficult to sell). The riskiest assets are usually both the highest yielding and the least liquid.

According to their objectives, active operations can be divided into operations aimed at maintaining a bank’s liquidity at a certain level, and operations aimed at making a profit.

The main types of active operations of the bank are:

Providing loans of various types to legal entities and individuals for a certain period, for various purposes and on various conditions;

Investments in securities (bonds, shares, etc.) issued by the state or other legal entities, i.e. transactions with securities on one’s own behalf and at one’s own expense;

Factoring operations;

Placement of funds in deposits and other banks.

Currently, there is no consensus among economists regarding the classification of some operations as active or intermediary. For example, some economists classify leasing operations as intermediary ones, since the bank acts as an intermediary during their implementation. Other economists believe that a leasing loan should be classified as an active operation, since it generates income, and in its economic essence it is a type of loan.

The main type of active banking operations is lending, through which commercial banks receive about 80-90% of their total income.

Lending to individuals and legal entities is carried out on the basis of Resolution of the Board of the National Bank of the Republic of Belarus dated December 30, 2003 No. 226 “Instructions on the procedure for the provision (placement) of funds by banks in the form of a loan and their return” (with amendments and additions), as well as on based on local regulations of commercial banks.

Currently, processes are taking place in the Republic of Belarus associated with an increase in interest rates on bank loans. This is due to an increase in credit risks associated with the unstable financial situation in the country. An increase in the refinancing rate forces banks to tie interest rates on loans to this value, since they cannot make the cost of loans cheaper than the cost of funds raised in order to avoid ruin. Therefore, in such a situation, banks offer clients who previously received loans to enter into additional agreements, according to which the amount of interest payments is strictly tied to the refinancing rate

Some banks accommodate clients who find themselves in a particularly difficult situation and temporarily fix the interest rate or defer loan repayment.

Factoring operations can be carried out by commercial banks seeking to universalize their functions, increase the number of clients, provide comprehensive services to existing clients and, ultimately, increase the bank’s image. For such operations, banks may create specialized departments, branches or companies. Factoring is the assignment to a bank of unpaid debt claims (payment documents, bills, etc.) arising between producers and consumers in the process of selling goods and services. The basis of the factoring operation is the purchase by the factor of the supplier’s payment documents for the shipped products, work performed and services provided and the transfer by the supplier to the factor of the right to demand payment from the buyer.

Investments in securities. The main types of securities with which commercial banks transact are government securities. As a rule, the purchase and sale of securities is carried out by head branches on the basis of applications submitted by branches or branches. In the practice of some banks, there is such a feature as the concentration of transactions with securities exclusively at the level of the head branch. Transactions with government securities on the primary market are carried out taking into account compliance with the minimum mandatory purchase standard established by the National Bank. Thus, at present, banks have a standard for the purchase of government short-term and long-term bonds in the amount of at least 6% of their equity capital for the quarter. Based on the results of transactions, commercial banks compile a portfolio of securities, which reflects the balances of securities on the relevant balance sheet accounts with their detailed characteristics.

The legislation of the Republic of Belarus gives commercial banks the right to conduct active operations with other types of securities. However, such a practice is rare due to the underdevelopment of the secondary securities market.

Active operations of commercial banks also include the provision of temporarily free resources in the form of interbank loans. This happens if a commercial bank has a positive balance in its correspondent account, i.e. temporarily free resources. Banks provide loans to each other on a contractual basis both in Belarusian rubles and in foreign currency.

In practice, the following main types of interbank credit are used:

Overdraft on correspondent accounts: the corresponding account records the amounts of debit (credit) balances on correspondent accounts of banks at the end of the operating day;

Overnight loans provided to other banks for a period of no more than one business day. This type of interbank credit is used to complete the current day's settlements;

Funds provided (received) to other banks under repo transactions. These transactions involve the purchase of securities from them for a certain period with the condition of their repurchase at a predetermined price.

A pledge of property can serve as collateral for an interbank loan. In some cases, the bank may re-mortgage the property of its clients received during transactions. Also, guarantees and sureties of other banks, enterprises and organizations can be used as collateral if they are secured by a highly liquid pledge of the guarantor or guarantor. Banks can provide each other with loans without appropriate collateral for a period of only up to 3 days with the consent of both parties.