Inflation is a multifactorial, multidimensional and complex socio-economic process characteristic of a market economy, which can be caused by different events and have different symptoms.

Table 1.1 Classification of inflation according to various criteria

	Classification criteria	Types of inflation
	Reasons that give rise to inflation	Demand inflation; Supply (cost) inflation
	The rate of price growth and the harmful impact on the economy	Moderate (creeping); Galloping; Hyperinflation
	Scope of distribution	Regional; National; World
	The ability of the state to influence inflation	Controlled; Uncontrollable
	The intensity of government intervention in the sphere of monetary circulation	Open; Suppressed (hidden); Supported and unsupported by government action
	The ability of the economy to adapt to rising prices	Balanced; Unbalanced
	Expectations of economic entities regarding trends and rates of change in price levels	Expected (expected, predicted); Unexpected (unpredictable, unexpected, unpredictable)
	A measure of economic openness	Internal External (imported)
	Conditional influence of the state on various spheres	Credit; Structural; Due to taxes; Driven by salary growth
	The power of trade union pressure on the labor market	New inflation

We will consider demand inflation and supply (cost) inflation in the next subsection.

As can be seen from table. 1.1. Depending on the rate of inflation and its harmful impact on the economy, moderate (creeping), galloping and hyperinflation are distinguished. The quantitative measurement of these forms of inflation is as follows:

Moderate inflation is characterized by a not too rapid rate of growth in the price level (up to 10% per year);

Galloping inflation is characterized by a sharp rise in prices from 10 to 200% per annum;

Hyperinflation is characterized by a rate of price growth of more than 200% per annum.

It is worth noting that the quantitative characteristics of the forms of inflation depending on the rate of growth of the price level are important, but not decisive. It is of utmost importance to clarify the impact of various forms of inflation on the economic behavior of business entities and the economy as a whole. With moderate inflation, entrepreneurs and financial institutions can still adequately respond to changes occurring in the market. The government can react accordingly, adjusting its socio-economic policy.

Proponents of Keynesian theory tend to believe that moderate inflation promotes economic development, stimulates entrepreneurial activity and does not have a dangerous impact on the economy. A characteristic feature of creeping inflation is its predictability, the availability of the necessary time for maneuvering, and coordination of the actions of industrial and financial capital. This form of inflation creates a certain tension in unstable economic structures, but does not create a danger for the entire economic system or its stability.

Galloping inflation is a situation in the economy when:

Entrepreneurs constantly raise prices;

Banks are steadily increasing loan fees, so the purchasing power of the population is falling;

The economy is in a phase of such intensity, when the regulation and coordination of intersectoral relations is being carried out on the verge of the possible;

Social policy is constantly being adjusted.

Consequently, with galloping inflation, there are few opportunities for coordination of actions, and the predictability and stability of development is limited. If the economy is unable to keep up with galloping inflation and the latter continues to accelerate, it turns into a form of hyperinflation. Galloping inflation means a crisis of the monetary system, hyperinflation means its collapse. Consequences of hyperinflation:

Economic ties are being destroyed;

Enterprises are going bankrupt en masse;

Entrepreneurs cease their activities.

The population panics and loses all confidence in the national currency and the government's promises. People “run away” from money and “chase” goods, thereby stimulating the acceleration of the movement of the money supply and the artificial growth of aggregate demand. All this has a detrimental effect on the economic situation, intensifying hyperinflationary processes. But it is impossible to change the “paradoxical” behavior of consumers by calls from the authorities.

Inflationary expectations generate inflation even when there are no objective conditions for its existence. In the presence of such conditions, inflation expectations intensify the inflationary process. Demand becomes frantic, prices are constantly rising, money is rapidly losing its value, they are trying to get rid of it faster, spinning a hyperinflationary spiral.

Depending on the scale of spread, inflation is distinguished between national (at the state level), regional (at the regional level) and world or global.

From the point of view of the intensity of government intervention in the sphere of monetary circulation, they distinguish: open and suppressed inflation.

Open inflation is characteristic of an economy with free pricing, and is a chronic increase in prices for goods and services. What are its mechanisms? The mechanism of adaptive inflation expectations, which is based on the deformation of consumer psychology. Observing rising prices, consumers try to predict how expensive goods will become and increase current demand to the detriment of savings, and this, in turn, reduces the volume of credit resources, which impedes the growth of capital investment, production and supply.

Since open inflation belongs to the category of macroeconomic phenomena, it is characterized by an increase in national economic price indices. At the same time, in the economy of any developed country, situations very often arise when certain commodity markets experience a decrease in prices (or at least a slowdown in their growth). There is only one explanation: open inflation does not destroy market mechanisms. They continue to work, send price signals to the economy, push investment, stimulate expansion of production and supply. And if so, then the fight against inflation becomes a task, albeit difficult, but still not hopeless.

Suppressed inflation, price increases may not be observed, and the depreciation of money can be expressed in various kinds of deficits.

This is exactly the situation that developed in the countries of the former USSR, where inflation was suppressed under the command-administrative system. Suppression of inflation, i.e. Complete control over prices and incomes, without eliminating the causes of inflation, has a negative impact on the development of market relations. Suppressed inflation, which is sometimes called hidden, is characteristic of an economy with regulated prices (and, possibly, wages), and is manifested in commodity shortages, deterioration in product quality, forced accumulation of money, the development of the shadow economy, and barter transactions. This type of inflation is very dangerous, because it leads to the destruction of the market mechanism.

It is generated by the incorrect activities of the state. For example, the introduction of a temporary freeze on incomes and prices, the establishment of upper limits on their growth; the desire to maintain the dynamics of wages at a level not exceeding the growth rate of labor productivity; or even total administrative control over prices and incomes.

But the main evil that suppressed inflation brings is the deprivation of price incentives to manufacturers, an obstacle to the development of the investment process, the expansion of production and supply. This situation in the recent past was the reality of our economy, bearing all the negative consequences of this process, including increasing inflation rates due to increasing production costs and an increase in the money supply. (11, p. 345)

So, the inflation process can develop in two main directions. If macroeconomic disequilibrium towards demand is expressed in a constant increase in prices, inflation should be considered open. When it is accompanied by general government price controls, inflation becomes suppressed.

From the standpoint of the ability of the economy to adapt to the rate of rising prices, there are also two types of inflation - balanced and unbalanced inflation.

With balanced inflation, prices rise relatively moderately and at the same time for most goods and services, the Central Bank calculates the results of the average annual price increase and, on this basis, raises the interest rate bar. Thus, the situation is leveled out, balanced and recorded as a situation with stable prices.

In the case of unbalanced inflation, prices for various goods and services rise at different times and in different ways for each type of product. Unbalanced inflation is much more common and is a big disaster for the economy, because... chaos with rising prices makes it difficult for citizens, businesses and investors to navigate and assess the economic situation. The rise in prices for raw materials outpaces the rise in prices for final products; the cost of a component exceeds the price of the entire complex product.

From the standpoint of the expectations of economic entities regarding trends and rates of change in the price level, expected and unexpected inflation are distinguished:

Expected inflation can be forecast over a period of time with reasonable reliability and is often a direct result of government actions.

Unexpected inflation is characterized by a sudden jump in prices, which negatively affects the tax system and monetary circulation. If the population has inflation expectations, such a situation will cause a sharp increase in demand, which in itself creates difficulties in the economy and distorts the real picture of public demand, which leads to a failure in forecasting trends in the economy and, with some indecisiveness of the government, further increases inflation expectations, which will push up prices. However, in the case when a sudden jump in prices occurs in an economy that is not infected with inflation expectations, the so-called “Pigou effect” occurs - a sharp drop in demand among the population in the hope of a quick decline in prices. Due to a decrease in demand, the manufacturer is forced to reduce the price and everything returns to a state of equilibrium. (8, p. 41)

The expected is predicted and predicted in advance, the unexpected is not. This makes it more dangerous than expected, because... individuals and economic agents do not have time to prepare for it, which can be fraught with partial or complete loss of savings. Unexpected inflation disorganizes the economy, can lead to panic, scares off foreign investors due to instability, industry cannot develop in such conditions, therefore its admission is considered a major miscalculation of the government.

The combination of balanced and expected inflation does not cause economic harm, but unbalanced and unexpected inflation is especially dangerous.

The emergence of global inflation is a product of the modern effective development of the world economy. If earlier we could hide from inflation somewhere, now a situation has arisen where there are reasons that lead to inflation on a global scale. These are the consequences of the creation of a single global financial market, which brought us many advantages, but at the same time brought us a global financial crisis and global inflation.

According to the sphere of inflation occurrence (the measure of openness of the economy), imported (exported) and intra-country inflation are distinguished.

Imported (exported) inflation is transferred from one country to another through factors such as an excessive influx of foreign currency into the country, an increase in import prices, etc.; Effective demand and prices of countries around the world influence money circulation.

Intra-country inflation is the depreciation of the national currency, manifested in a steady increase in the general price level, generated by negative phenomena in the country’s economy and its monetary circulation, for example, excessive credit expansion, “administrative” (managed) prices, etc.

In practice, the types of inflation are intertwined, which is why inflation is called a multifactorial phenomenon that opposes the development of production and the full functioning of the country’s economy. Some economists use the concept of “inflation crisis,” which is considered to be a period of at least two years of inflation, accompanied by an annual rise in prices of over 40%.

Inflation can take different forms: open and hidden (suppressed); creeping, galloping and hyperinflation; demand inflation and cost inflation; predictable and unpredictable, etc.

In practice, it is not easy to distinguish one type of inflation from another; they are all closely related and constantly interact.

Depending on the criteria, different types of inflation are distinguished.
If the criterion is the rate (level) of inflation, then the following are distinguished:
moderate (creeping, slow) inflation,
galloping (fast, strong) inflation,
hyperinflation.
Moderate inflation is measured in percentage per year, and its level is 3-5% (up to 10%). An inflation rate of 3-4% per year is considered normal for a modern economy, is considered an incentive to increase output and is called the “natural rate of inflation”;
The cost of money remains almost stable, there is no risk of signing contracts at nominal prices. This kind of inflation is inherent in most countries with developed market economies. Natural inflation rates are most typical in the United States and Western Europe, where inflation rates are around 3%.
Galloping inflation, also measured in percentage per year, but its rate is in double digits and is considered a serious economic problem for developed countries, ranging from 10 to 200%. Unlike moderate, it becomes difficult to control.
Hyperinflation, measured in percentages per week and even per day, the level of which is 40-50% per month or more than 1000% per year.
The peculiarity of hyperinflation is that it turns out to be practically uncontrollable:
prices are rising astronomically;
there is a huge discrepancy between prices and wages;
the well-being of even the wealthiest strata of society is being destroyed;
The largest enterprises become unprofitable and unprofitable.
A characteristic sign of hyperinflation is
complete loss of confidence in the national currency: flight from
money, the population seeks to invest it in material assets, barter transactions are widely used;
The “world champion” in terms of the maximum monthly level of hyperinflation is Hungary - 420 trillion. % in 1946, and in duration - Nicaragua, where hyperinflation lasted for 48 months from 1987 to 1991.
Naturally, there cannot be clear boundaries in dividing the types of inflation; this division is approximate.
Moderate inflation? a regularity of modern market economies, even the most prosperous ones. It can become strong under unfavorable circumstances (an increase in military spending, as in Israel during the war with Arab countries, or an increase in prices for imported products, as in the 70s after a multiple increase in oil prices by OPEC countries).
Hyperinflation? a feature of wars and post-war devastation for countries with weak economies (Russia during the civil war, Germany after the First World War), but can also occur in peacetime in countries with a very high share of uncontrolled state economies that are unable to ensure the collection of taxes.
The differences between the above types of inflation are not only quantitative.
Moderate inflation is characterized by minimal additional costs for society, it is usually predictable, it is relatively easy to adapt to, banks maintain a positive real interest rate, and the population can protect most of their savings from depreciation. With moderate inflation, a fairly long process of price reduction for some individual groups of goods may take place.
Galloping inflation, as a rule, is unpredictable with the necessary accuracy and can be characterized by strong differentiation of price indices for various goods and services. Price increases are widespread for all goods and services. A positive bank interest rate, especially on deposits, is not guaranteed. It is very likely that speculative incomes of resellers, based on different price dynamics for different goods and the discrete nature of their changes, will increase. Methods to protect the population from galloping inflation can only strengthen it. Galloping inflation can lead to a noticeable redistribution of current income and national wealth.
Moderate and galloping inflation does not always lead to the need for monetary reforms and denomination of monetary units. Some countries, having experienced galloping inflation and stopped it, did not return to the previous level of prices, enduring a large number of zeros on banknotes and in other documents (Japanese yen, Italian lira).
On the contrary, hyperinflation almost always ends with monetary reform or at least denomination. During hyperinflation, the scale of redistribution of social wealth in a relatively short period of time can be colossal if it is also accompanied by any economic reforms. The most striking example of this is? Russia and some other CIS countries, where over the course of several years a significant part of the national property became concentrated in a small group of private individuals. Without the kind of inflation we had, this would have been impossible. Hyperinflation often leads to the complete collapse of the financial system, the widespread use of foreign currencies, and the expansion of direct product exchange. Some of these phenomena also took place in Russia.
Another criterion is the rise in prices for various product groups.
There are two types:
balanced inflation;
unbalanced inflation;
With balanced inflation, the prices of various goods remain constant relative to each other.
With unbalanced inflation, the prices of various goods constantly change in relation to each other, and in different proportions.
Balanced inflation is not scary for enterprises; they only have to periodically increase the prices of goods. For example, raw materials have risen in price 10 times, and you accordingly increase the price of your final products. The risk of loss of profitability is inherent only to those entrepreneurs who are the last in the chain of price increases.
Unbalanced inflation is a big problem for the future. It is impossible to actually select areas for investing capital, calculate and compare the profitability of investment options.
The third criterion is the forecast.
There are two types:
expected inflation;
unexpected inflation;
Expected inflation can be predicted in advance.
The unexpected arises spontaneously. No forecast possible.
Many economists believe that moderate, expected and balanced inflation has little impact on economic efficiency and redistribution processes. A much greater danger is unforeseen and unbalanced inflation, especially if it grows in double digits, not to mention hyperinflation.
The fourth criterion is the forms of manifestation of inflation, distinguished: open inflation, suppressed and hidden inflation.
Open inflation is manifested in the observed increase in the general level of
prices . This type of inflation is typical for countries with market economies. Although open inflation seriously distorts the market mechanism, it does not destroy it. It continues to generate price signals that indicate areas for profitable investment of capital, stimulates increased production, and this reflects a downward effect on prices.
Suppressed inflation occurs when prices are set by the state, and at a level lower than the equilibrium market level (set by the relationship between supply and demand on the commodity market) (Fig. 1).
The main form of hidden inflation is the shortage of goods. Usually it is characteristic of planned economies (although it does not follow from the essence of such economies). Target prices may not be high enough to balance supply and demand for some goods and services. Hidden inflation can also occur in a capitalist economy during periods of war and after them, when rationed supplies are introduced. In conditions of suppressed inflation, prices are far from real changes, needs and demand. They do not give a signal to production, and in a command economy it is not able to perceive them. After all, the manufacturer is not free to choose where to apply his funds.

PG – price set by the state,
YS is the value of total output (the amount of products produced and offered for sale by manufacturers),
YD is the value of aggregate demand (the amount of products that consumers would like to buy). The difference between YD and YS is nothing but deficiency. The main form of manifestation of hidden inflation is the shortage of goods. Deficit serves as a form of manifestation of inflation, since one of the characteristic features of inflation is a decrease in the purchasing power of money. Scarcity means that money has no purchasing power at all, since a person cannot buy anything with it.
Hidden inflation is characterized by a decrease in the quality of goods and services at a constant price level. Inflation is also affecting the investment sphere; official statistics do not reflect the increase in the level of state retail prices due to an arbitrarily selected consumer basket. A similar situation was typical of the USSR, Bulgaria and Romania in the late 80s of the twentieth century.

The following types of inflation are distinguished.

1. By the nature of the manifestation (by the method of influencing prices):

- open;

- hidden.

Open inflation develops in markets where free prices operate, develops freely and is not restrained by anyone.

Hidden inflation- This is inflation in which the state takes measures aimed at directly containing prices for goods and services.

2. Depending on the prevailing influence of factors (causes of occurrence):

- demand inflation;

- supply inflation.

Demand inflation- This is an imbalance between supply and demand on the demand side. It is characterized by the fact that the growth of demand at full utilization of resources and employment is not supported by an elastic expansion of supply. The causes of demand inflation are:

Excessive emission of money supply;

The rapid growth of aggregate effective demand (which is formed from the total cash expenditures of households, the state, and entrepreneurs), its separation from the growth of SOP volumes.

Supply inflation- an increase in prices as a result of an increase in production costs or a decrease in aggregate supply. The reasons for the increase in costs may be an increase in prices for raw materials, energy, increased wages, oligopolistic pricing policies, economic and financial policies of the state, etc.

3. According to the rate of price growth:

- moderate (creeping) inflation;

- galloping;

- hyperinflation.

Moderate inflation– this is inflation in which the overall increase in the price level does not exceed 5-10% per year.

Galloping inflation– this is inflation, in which the annual rate of price growth reaches from 10 to 100%.

Hyperinflation– inflation, when prices increase astronomically: by 1 – 2% per day or by 500% or more per year.

4. According to the ratio of price increases for different groups of goods and services:

- balanced;

- unbalanced.

Balanced inflation arises as a result of proportional changes in the prices of different goods. Prices are rising quite slowly and simultaneously for most goods and services.

Unbalanced inflation characterized by an uneven (disproportionate) increase in prices for different goods and services.

5. According to the degree of forecasting:

- expected;

- unexpected.

Expected inflation– usually this is moderate inflation, which can be predicted for any period of time.

Unexpected inflation characterized by a sudden jump in prices caused by an increase under the influence of inflation expectations of the population's aggregate demand for consumer goods, commodity producers - for raw materials and means of production.

End of work -

This topic belongs to the section:

Macroeconomics

Lugansk National Agrarian University.. Department of Economic Theory and Marketing.. Macroeconomics..

If you need additional material on this topic, or you did not find what you were looking for, we recommend using the search in our database of works:

What will we do with the received material:

If this material was useful to you, you can save it to your page on social networks:

Tweet

All topics in this section:

The formation of macroeconomics as a science
Macroeconomics is the study of the overall level of national output, unemployment and inflation; deals with the properties of the economic system as a whole, studies the factors and results of p

Key problems of macroeconomics
Macroeconomics is a social science that studies the patterns of functioning and development trends of the national economy as a whole, as well as tools and methods

Macroeconomic aggregates
The object of analysis in macroeconomics is the following global problems associated with its balance and instability: inflation, . unemployment;

Levels of macroeconomic analysis
Ex post and ex ante analysis. There are two types of macroeconomic analysis: ex post analysis and ex ante analysis.

Methods of macroeconomics
If the subject of a scientific discipline answers the question of what it studies, then the method answers how this science is studied. A method is understood as a set of methods, techniques,

System of National Accounts
The effectiveness of the functioning and regulation of macroeconomic processes is impossible without statistical accounting of the indicators of the national economy. Based on them, it is possible to determine the state of the macroeco

Main macroeconomic indicators
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is a macroeconomic indicator that represents the market value of final goods and services produced in a country over a certain period of time.

By added value
The use of these methods gives the same result, since in an economy total income is equal to the value of total expenses, and the value of added value is equal to the cost of the final product,

Correlation of indicators in the system of national accounts
Net national product (NNP) is the most accurate macroeconomic indicator of goods created and purchased by the population of a given country.

Nominal and real GDP (GNP). Price indices
All main indicators in the system of national accounts reflect the results of economic activity for the year, i.e. are expressed in prices of a given year (current prices) and are therefore nominal. But

Public Welfare
In the context of the transition of the economy to market regulation of economic activity, achieving an increase in social welfare is important. Ensuring growth in the well-being of the population

Shadow economy
The shadow economy is understood as economic processes that are hidden by their participants, are not controlled by the state and society, and are not fully recorded.

Aggregate demand. AD curve
Macroeconomic equilibrium is a state of internal balance and proportionality of the main elements and functions of the economic system, in which the proportion

Non-price factors of aggregate demand
So far we have been talking about the factors that determine the downward slope of the aggregate demand curve. The general price level was considered as the main reason for changes in the value of aggregate demand. All OS

Aggregate offer. AS curve
Aggregate supply (AS) is the supply of real GDP. It is influenced by prices and non-price factors. Aggregate supply –

Reasons for cyclical economic fluctuations
There are many theories explaining the origin of economical cycles. Economic schools explain the cause of cyclical development differently, the English economist J. Robertson calculated

Typology of economic cycles
Economic cycles differ in the depth of the decline and the period during which the economy returns to its pre-crisis state. Practices of developed countries of the world, relevant studies of economics

Smoothing out economic fluctuations by the state
Wrinkled clothes usually do not give us positive emotions, and we take to the iron to give our things a more attractive look. Wave-like development is “folds” in economic life

Peculiarities
The crisis of the post-command economy has much in common with those phenomena that manifest themselves in any economy that is in recession. At the same time, you can find a lot of specifics in it.

The labor market as a regulator of employment
The labor market is a set of economic relations regarding the purchase and sale of a specific product - labor; the market in which labor is exchanged for wages.

Basic forms and indicators
The health of the economy depends on how efficiently resources are used. Since the main resource of the economy is labor, supporting employment, that is, ensuring working people

Total workforce
Depending on the reasons that cause unemployment, there are three types: frictional; structural; cyclical. Also distinguished are technological, seasonal and sk

State policy to combat unemployment
Since unemployment is a serious macroeconomic problem and is an indicator of macroeconomic instability, the state is taking measures to combat it. For different

Employment and social protection system
State regulation of the labor market is carried out in the following main areas: 1. Employment of the unemployed population and provided

The concept of inflation and its measurement
In the first half of the 90s, especially in 1992 and 1993, Ukraine repeatedly experienced inflationary shocks - sharp increases in the general price level. It was an extremely difficult time for families

Conditions and causes of inflation
There are external and internal causes of inflation. External causes of inflation are: a) rising prices on world markets; b) abbreviation d

Consequences of inflation
The consequences of inflation are as follows: Firstly, it leads to the redistribution of national income and wealth between different groups o

Anti-inflationary policy
Due to the fact that the main cause of inflation lies in the increase in the money supply, anti-inflationary policy should be aimed at reducing the rate of its growth. The government must: carry out

Functional role of investments
Investment is usually understood as the use of savings to create new production capacities and capital assets. When determining the content of investments, both

Macroeconomic equilibrium
As already noted, consumption and investment are important components of aggregate demand, and investment is significantly influenced by saving. Using graphical analysis, attempts

Derivative investments
The traditional view of classical theory on the processes of saving and investing emphasizes the positive significance of high savings. The higher the savings, the deeper the “reservoir” from which they draw

Subjects, objects, goals, methods
State regulation of the economy is a system of legislative, executive and control measures carried out by authorized government agencies and

The state in the structure of economic relations
The need for state regulation of the economy. The need for government intervention in the economic life of society is caused primarily by the following factors.

Methods and tools of state regulation. Economic policy
How can the government influence the behavior of households and businesses? Using techniques known in management practice at any level, including in the family: p

Economic policy
One of the important tools for influencing the rate of economic growth, and therefore the level of unemployment, is the financial system, including the tax system. Studying the structure of the financial system

Taxes, state budget and fiscal policy
Taxes play the role of a factor influencing the rate of economic development. According to the Keynesian approach, the use of taxes as an important instrument of fiscal policy can stimulate business and

Balanced budget, budget deficit and public debt
Budget deficit is the excess of budget expenditures over revenues. Covered by government loans and emissions that are not backed by commodity mass. The budget deficit, as

The essence and significance of the state’s monetary (monetary) policy
Monetary (monetary) policy is one of the main macroeconomic instruments based on the ability of the monetary system to influence the money supply and,

Money supply indicators (monetary aggregates)
Money supply indicators What M1 includes Cash (sometimes called “money outside the bank”) and deposits

Characteristics of the banking system
The banking system is a set of national banks and credit institutions operating in the monetary sphere. The main function of banks is

Concept, principles and methods of its implementation
Social policy of the state is the activity of the state to manage the development of the social sphere of society, aimed at meeting the interests and needs of citizens.

Western economic literature puts forward the following reasons for income inequality:
1. People have different mental, physical and aesthetic abilities. 2. People have different levels of education. 3. People

Measuring inequality in income distribution
The most common indicators of population income differentiation include the income concentration coefficient (Gini index) and the Lorenz curve, which characterize the degree of removal from the state

Poverty and its features
Poverty is the economic condition of people who do not have a minimum (according to country standards) means of subsistence. The number of poor people varies depending on

There are indicators of living standards and indicators of quality of life
Integrated indicators (indicators) of living standards include: ü real wages; ü real income of the population; ü income from secondary

Social protection of the population
Since market relations do not guarantee the right to work, to income, to education, and do not provide social protection for the disabled, low-income pensioners and other categories of citizens, then

Concepts of international trade of mercantilists and physiocrats
International trade as a set of foreign trade of different countries of the world arose on the basis of the emergence of the world market (XVI - XVIII centuries) and the international division of labor. Development internationally

Tariff instruments for restricting foreign trade
Trade policy is a relatively independent direction of the government’s fiscal policy, aimed at state regulation of foreign trade

Non-tariff restrictions in foreign trade
The use of tariffs in industrialized countries declined substantially after World War II (1939–1945). At the same time, the role of import and export

Economic foundations of international trade
International trade is a means by which countries can develop specialization, increase the productivity of their resources and thus increase the overall economy.

The relationship between the import and export of capital in the form of direct investment
7) the volume of the country’s external debt and its ratio to the volume of the country’s GNP. A country participating in international trade receives proceeds (funds) for the expo

Payment balance
A country's balance of payments is the ratio between the amount of revenue received by a given country from abroad and the amount of foreign payments made by the country for a given period.

Foreign exchange market and exchange rates
Each state has its own international currency. This term is used in two meanings - as the monetary unit of a country - its national currency; and as a monetary sign

This system had certain advantages
1) Stable currencies helped reduce uncertainty and risk and stimulated international trade. 2) This system automatically, i.e. b

International financial and credit organizations
The leading place among them belongs to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD). International currency fo

Impact of foreign trade on GDP
The main methods of the state's foreign economic policy are protectionism and free trade policy. Protectionism is a government policy of protection

The importance of studying the problem of economic growth lies in the fact that economic growth is the basis for increasing well-being, and the analysis of the factors that determine it allows us to explain the differences in

Types and factors of economic growth
There are three types of economic growth – extensive, intensive and mixed. 1. Extensive type is carried out through the use of additional resources, not from

Models of economic growth
Economic growth models are types of one-dimensional or multidimensional economic models of long-term development. Macroeconomic models are used to implement

R. Solow's model of economic growth
The Solow model places a central place on technological progress, which ensures continuous economic growth. Other models in this direction include:

Economic growth results
The results of economic growth are called positive and negative. In order to weaken the negative results, the problem of state regulation of economic

Public Policy and Economic Growth
The growth of labor productivity and living standards of the population is significantly influenced by the economic policy of the state. First of all, through economic policies

Benefits and costs of economic growth
The significance of economic growth is that it expands the possibilities for increasing the level of well-being. On its basis, conditions are created for the implementation of social programs, poverty eradication,

Part-time study
1. Definition of the subject of macroeconomics. Key problems of macroeconomics 2. Objects and subjects of macroeconomics. Macroeconomic aggregates

Economic growth and how to measure it
58.Types and factors of economic growth 59.Results of economic growth 60.Public policy and economic growth

5. The concept of the market and the conditions for its emergence. Market subjects.

6. Transaction costs, their types and market boundaries.

7. Economic and non-economic benefits. Product.

8. Money: origin, evolution, functions. Money and transaction cost savings.

9. Demand and its factors. Demand functions. Demand and quantity demanded. Demand price.

10. Utility, marginal utility and subjective value. Demand and diminishing marginal utility.

11. Market supply and its factors. Suggestion function. Supply and quantity supplied. Offer price.

12. Supply in instantaneous, short-term and long-term periods.

13. Equilibrium in the goods market. Equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity. Deficiency and surplus as price phenomena.

14. Consumer surplus and producer surplus.

15. Elasticity of demand and elasticity of supply. Direct and cross price elasticity of demand.

16. The economic nature of the company. Classification of firms (neo-institutional approach).

17. Firm costs: accounting and economic, constant, variable and marginal.

18. Equilibrium of a competitive firm in the short and long term.

19. Profit maximization under conditions of pure monopoly. The Dead Loss Problem.

20. Oligopolistic market structure. Market concentration and ways to measure it. Herfindahl index.

21. Main types of market structures of imperfect competition. Open, closed, natural monopoly.

22. General characteristics of factor markets. Supply and demand in the resource market. Law of diminishing returns of variable resources.

23. Labor market and wages.

24. Capital services market.

25. Land market and land rent.

25. Land market and land rent.

Question 27. Public choice theory.

28. GDP and methods of calculating it by expenses and income and by value added. Double counting problems.

29. Nominal and real GDP. gdp deflator Actual and potential GDP

30. National system Income The relationship between the indicators gdp, gnd, nvd, nat. Income, personal income, disposable income.

36. Macroeconomic equilibrium in the “Keynesian cross” and “savings - investments” model

37. Unemployment: causes, types, measurements. Natural rate of unemployment

38. Social and economic consequences of fire protection. Okun's Law

40. Economic cycles and their causes. Short-, medium-, long-term (long Kondratiev waves) cycles.

41.The effect of the government expenditure multiplier and its graphical interpretation.

42.Structure of the banking system in a market economy. Functions of the Central and commercial banks.

43.The process of creating bank deposits. Money supply multiplier (m).

44.Money, monetary base and components of money supply: monetary aggregates m1, m2 and other liquid assets (quasi-money).

45.Money demand theory: neoclassical and Keynesian explanation of the demand for money.

46.Stimulating and contractionary monetary policy. Friedman's monetary rule (automatic monetary policy).

47.Principles of taxation. Direct and indirect taxes. Laffer curve.

48.Stimulating and contractionary fiscal policy.

49.Definition of inflation and its changes. Moderate and galloping inflation. Hyperinflation. Open and suppressed inflation.

50. Inflation as an imbalance between aggregate demand and aggregate

54. Theories of international trade (absolute and comparative advantage, Heckscher-Ohlin theorem, Leontief paradox)

55. Balance of payments and its structure. Balance of payments deficit

56.Exchange rate: nominal and real, fixed and floating

49.Definition of inflation and its changes. Moderate and galloping inflation. Hyperinflation. Open and suppressed inflation.

Inflation (lat. Inflatio - inflation) is the process of reducing the value of money, as a result of which the same amount of money after some time can buy a smaller volume of goods and services. In practice, this translates into increased prices.

Inflation is the overflow of financial channels with paper money, which leads to their depreciation.

Inflation is a monetary phenomenon, but it is not limited to the depreciation of money. It penetrates into all spheres of economic life and begins to destroy these spheres. The state, production, and the financial market suffer from it, but people suffer the most. During inflation, what happens:

Depreciation of money in relation to gold;

Depreciation of money in relation to goods;

Depreciation of money in relation to foreign currency.

Types of inflation.

The rate of price growth (price index) is the first of three criteria when determining the type of inflation. Another criterion is the degree of divergence in price increases among different groups

(i.e. the correlation of price increases for various product groups). The third criterion is the expected and predictable nature of inflation.

Let's consider types of inflation from the perspective of price growth rate(first criterion) i.e. mainly quantitative. In this regard, there are three types of inflation:

- moderate(prices grow less than 10% per year, the value of money is maintained, there is no risk of signing contracts in nominal prices);

-galloping inflation(price increases are measured in hundreds of percent per year, contracts are “tied” to price increases, money quickly materializes);

- hyperinflation ( prices are rising at astronomical rates, the discrepancy between prices and wages is becoming catastrophic).

According to the degree of balancing of price growth, two types of inflation are distinguished: balanced inflation and unbalanced inflation.

With balanced inflation, the prices of various goods relative to each other remain unchanged, and with unbalanced inflation, the prices of various goods constantly change in relation to each other, and in different proportions.

From the point of view of the third criterion (expectability or predictability of inflation), there are: expected inflation and unexpected inflation. Expected inflation refers to inflation that is predicted and projected in advance; unexpected inflation is the opposite.

Rising prices and the appearance of excessive amounts of money are only the external manifestation of inflation; its underlying cause is the imbalance in the proportions of the national economy.

There are two types of inflation, firstly, demand inflation, in which the balance of supply and demand is disrupted by the demand side, and, secondly, supply inflation, in which an imbalance of supply and demand occurs due to rising production costs.

In the world economic literature, three main forces are identified that lead to an imbalance in the national economy and inflation:

State monopoly on the issue of paper money, on foreign trade, on non-productive, especially military and other expenses related to the functions of the modern state;

Trade union monopoly, which sets the size and duration of a particular level of wages;

Monopoly of the largest firms on determining costs and prices.

Depending on the growth rate, there are:

Creeping (moderate) inflation(price growth less than 10% per year). Western economists consider it as an element of normal economic development, since, in their opinion, slight inflation (accompanied by a corresponding increase in the money supply) is capable, under certain conditions, of stimulating the development of production and the modernization of its structure. The growth of the money supply accelerates payment turnover, reduces the cost of loans, contributes to the intensification of investment activity and the growth of production. The growth of production, in turn, leads to the restoration of equilibrium between the commodity and money supply at a higher price level. The average inflation rate in EU countries in recent years has been 3-3.5%. At the same time, there is always a danger that creeping inflation will escape state control. It is especially great in countries where there are no proven mechanisms for regulating economic activity, and the level of production is low and is characterized by the presence of structural imbalances;

Galloping inflation(annual price increase from 10 to 50%). It is dangerous for the economy and requires urgent anti-inflationary measures. Predominant in developing countries;

Hyperinflation(prices are growing at an astronomical rate, reaching several thousand percent per year, or over 100% per month). It paralyzes the economic mechanism and causes a transition to barter exchange. It is also characteristic of countries in certain periods when they experience a radical change in their economic structure.

The expression is also used chronic inflation for long-term inflation. Stagflation is a situation where inflation is accompanied by a drop in production (stagnation).

A characteristic feature of galloping inflation Compared to moderate, the risks associated with concluding contracts in nominal prices increase. In this regard, when concluding transactions, either price increases are taken into account, or the stable convertible currency of another state is used instead of the national currency. For example, in Russia, during the period of galloping inflation, prices for goods and services were often indicated in US dollars. Unlike moderate, galloping inflation is difficult to control. Galloping inflation affects the behavior of households and firms; inflation expectations play a large role. Every price increase leads to higher wages and costs.

Consequences of galloping inflation:

inflation expectations;

the desire to convert money into goods and real estate in order to save funds from depreciation;

refusal to provide loans with a fixed interest rate.

Hyperinflation is identified as a separate type, since it means an almost complete collapse of commodity-money circulation and the country’s financial system due to a loss of confidence in the money of market participants. Money is losing its natural role in the economy as a measure of value, a means of circulation, a means of accumulation, and a means of payment.

A period of hyperinflation always signifies a crisis in the state, a collapse of the financial system. Hyperinflation can be accompanied by a default on state debts, mass bankruptcies, a maximum increase in barter and refusal to use money, and impoverishment of the population due to the lack of opportunity to save.

During hyperinflation, such as in Russia during the Civil War, or Germany in the early 1920s, money circulation may generally give way to natural exchange. Liquid goods, the intrinsic value of which does not depend on government policy, begin to act as equivalents: freely convertible currency, precious metals, some goods (vodka, cigarettes, sugar). The consequence may be the dollarization of the economy, when foreign currency (most often throughout the 20th century and before the global crisis of 2008, it was the US dollar) is widely used for transactions within the country or in individual industries, up to the complete displacement of the national currency.

Governments are considered to be the cause of hyperinflation because they cover government expenses by issuing (issuing) new money, thereby undermining public confidence in their currency. Banknotes are losing their value and the population is trying to get rid of them as quickly as possible.

Distinguish between open and suppressed inflation. The first manifests itself in rising prices, the second in the disappearance of goods.

There are modern theories of inflation that allow us to determine its types: open inflation and suppressed inflation. Open inflation is characterized by macroeconomic disequilibrium towards demand, in which the real value of money falls . Types of open inflation:

Demand inflation - is generated by an excess of aggregate demand compared to the real volume of production. (Shortage of goods)

Supply (cost) inflation means an increase in prices caused by an increase in production costs in conditions of underutilized production resources. Increasing unit costs reduces the volume of products offered by manufacturers at the existing price level.

Balanced inflation - prices of various goods remain constant relative to each other.

Unbalanced inflation - the prices of various goods change in relation to each other in different proportions.

Projected inflation is inflation that is taken into account in the expectations and behavior of economic entities.

Unpredicted inflation comes as a surprise to the population, since the actual growth rate of the price level exceeds the expected one.

Adapted consumer expectations are a phenomenon associated with the deformation of consumer psychology. Extremely increased demand for goods allows entrepreneurs to raise prices for goods. (Demand creates supply).

Suppressed inflation characterized by external price stability (with active government intervention), but an increase in the shortage of goods, which also reduces the real value of money. The mechanism of suppressed inflation is associated with the inevitable emergence of a gap between administratively established and higher market prices . There is a shortage, buyers in search of the right product overpay traders. Begins movement of commodity masses from the official economy to the shadow economy.

"

When completing tasks, you have to perform certain work, which is best organized as follows:

• read the assignment carefully;
• If you are answering a theoretical question or solving a situational problem, think about and formulate a specific answer (the answer should be brief and its content should be entered in the space provided; keep notes clearly and legibly).

For each correct answer you can receive a number of points determined by the jury, not higher than the specified maximum score.

The sum of points scored for all solved questions is the result of your work.

The maximum number of points is 125.

The tasks are considered completed if you submit them to the jury on time.

We wish you success !

Methodology for assessing the completion of olympiad tasks

Exercise 1

Select several correct answers. Enter your answers in the table.

1.1. The electoral legislation of the Russian Federation does not allow

1. open voting
2. voting by mail
3. early voting
4. voting at home
5. voting outside of permanent residence

1.2. Types of social norms include

1. scientific
2. legal
3. moral
4. corporate
5. climatic

1.3. Types of economic systems include

1. industrial
2. traditional
3. centralized
4. monopolistic
5. market

1.4. The forms of law are

1. legal fact
2. regulatory agreement
3. morality
4. judicial precedent
5. legal doctrine

Answer:

1.1	1.2	1.3	1.4
12	234	235	245

2 points for a completely correct answer, 1 point for an answer with one error(one of the correct answers is not indicated, or along with all the correct answers indicated, one incorrect answer is given).

Maximum per task8 points.

Task 2

What unites the concepts below? Give the most accurate answer possible.

Open, hidden, moderate, balanced, galloping.

Answer: types of inflation.

2 points

Task 3

What unites the processes below? Give the most accurate answer possible. Measurement, observation, comparison, experiment.

Answer: empirical methods of cognition.

2 points

Task 4

Give brief rationale for the series

Independent media, unions, public organizations, courts, charities.

Answer: institutions of civil society, the odd ones are the courts.

1 1 point for correctly indicated extra element.

Maximum per task2 points.

Task 5

Give brief rationale for the series(which combines the listed elements). Indicate which of the elements is redundant on this basis.

Genus, tribe, nationality, varna

Answer: ethnic groups, the extra one is varna.

1 a point for the correctly specified unifying feature and1 point for correctspecified extra element.

Maximum per task2 points.

Task 6

« Yes" or " No"? If you agree with the statement, write “ Yes", if you don't agree ‒ " No" Enter your answers into the table.

6.1. The Russian Federation is an example of a national-territorial federation.

6.2. Assimilation is a type of demographic process.

6.3. Russia has adopted a proportional scale of taxation of personal income.

6.4. The “Table of Ranks”, which was in force in the Russian Empire, was an instrument of social mobility.

6.5. The cycle of Russian epics about Ilya Muromets is an example of mass culture.

6.6. Citizens of the Russian Federation can enter into an employment contract upon reaching 14 years of age without the consent of legal representatives and guardianship authorities.

Answer:

6.1	6.2	6.3	6.4	6.5	6.6.
Yes	No	Yes	Yes	No	No

By1 point for each correct answer.

Maximum per task6 points.

Task 7

Match between administrative measures and their nature.

Answer:

Answer:

A	B	IN	G
2	4	3	1

By1 point for each correct correlation.

Maximum per task4 points.

Task 9

Decide legal task.

Irina Bobrysh was born in Russia in 1985. At the age of 18 she left to study and work in Germany. In 2016, she returned to Russia, and in 2018 she decided to run for president of Russia. Will the CEC register her as a candidate? Justify your answer.

Answer:

No. According to Art. 81 of the Constitution of Russia, a citizen of the Russian Federation who is at least 35 years old (in 2018 Irina will be 33 years old), who has been permanently residing in the Russian Federation for at least 10 years (she will be permanently residing in Russia for only 2 years) can be elected President of the Russian Federation.

1 point for correct answer.

By2 points for the justification given.

An answer without justification will not be counted..

Maximum per task5 points.

Task 10

Decide economic task.

The online service for purchasing clothes offers the following conditions: when purchasing clothes worth more than 5,000 rubles, a discount of 1,000 rubles is provided, delivery can be carried out as follows - 250 rubles for delivery by courier to the door, if the order amount is more than 2,000 rubles, it is free, or free pickup from the point of issue.

Vasily wants to buy a tracksuit worth 4,500 rubles and a T-shirt worth 1,000 rubles. Which delivery option will Vasily choose if a trip to the pick-up point and back will cost him 100 rubles? Provide the necessary calculations.

Solution:

Since the order amount is more than 5,000 rubles, Vasily will receive a discount of 1,000 rubles and spend 4,500 rubles. Since the order amount is more than 2000 rubles, it is more profitable for him to choose delivery by courier.

Answer: will choose delivery by courier.

2 points for the correct answer.

3 points for the above calculations.

An answer without calculations will not be counted..

Maximum per task5 points.

Task 11

Insert in place of the gaps the serial numbers of the corresponding words from the proposed list. Words are given in the list in the singular, adjectives in the masculine form. Please note: the list of words also contains some that should not appear in the text! Enter your answer into the table.

The basis of the economic life of society is material _______(A). This is the creation of goods and services aimed at satisfying _______(B) person. These goods and services arise as a result of the interaction between a person and _______(B). Those natural and social forces that can be used in the process of creating goods, services and other _______(G) are called _______(D) resources.

Scientists identify several groups of resources. The first includes natural– land, water, minerals, plants and much more that nature gives us. Among them are _______(E) (i.e. those whose reserves on Earth are limited) and _______(W) (for example, water). The second group consists material, i.e. man-made, man-made resources (machines, equipment, artificial materials, metal, fabrics). The third group is _______(3) resources, i.e. the entire population of the country who is of working age (this does not include children, the elderly and those who are unable to work for health reasons). Fourth group – _______(I) resources – those funds that society can allocate to organize production. In the modern world, we can also talk about intellectual and _______(K) resources. These are resources created in the process of human intellectual activity. They make up the fifth group.

List of terms

Answer:

A	B	IN	G	D	E	AND	Z	AND	TO
17	1	18	20	2	16	3	12	4	5

By1 point for each correct insertion.

Maximum per task10 points.

Task 12

Combine the following concepts into a classification scheme and give it a title. Pay attention to the presence of unnecessary concepts.

Social-transformative, spiritual, industrial, observational, cognitive, experimental, value-oriented, material, prognostic, restorative.

Answer:

By1 point for each correct element.

Maximum per task8 points.

Task 13

Study the images below and complete the tasks. Enter your answers into the table.

13.1. Define a general concept for all images.

13.2. Divide the images into four groups. Enter the letter designations of the images in the appropriate cells of the table.

13.3. Indicate what unites the images in each group based on the common basis for classification you establish.

Read the text carefully and answer the questions.

M. M. Speransky

Introduction to the Code of State Laws

I. On the properties of state laws

The general object of all laws is to establish the relations of people to the general safety of persons and property. In the great complexity of these relations and the laws that arise from them, it is necessary to establish their main divisions. The very objects of laws are accepted as the beginning of these divisions: the relations of people living in society. These relations are twofold: each person has relations with the entire state, and all persons in particular have relations with each other. This gives rise to two main divisions of laws. State laws determine the relationship of private individuals to the state. Civil laws establish the relations between persons. State laws are of two kinds: some are transitory, others are fundamental and immovable. Transitory laws are those that determine the attitude of one or many persons to the state in one particular case. These are the essence: the laws of public economy, the laws of peace and war, police regulations, etc. They essentially must change as circumstances change. Fundamental laws, on the contrary, consist of fixed and unchangeable principles with which all other laws must be consistent. It is necessary to consider their properties and degree of necessity.

II. On the properties of state indigenous laws

Laws exist for the benefit and safety of the people subject to them. But benefit and safety are vague concepts, subject to various changes. If the laws were changed according to a different image of these concepts, they would soon become confused and could even become contrary to the end for which they exist. Therefore, in any well-ordered state there must be principles of legislation that are positive, constant, immovable, with which all other laws can be consistent. These positive principles are fundamental state laws. Three forces move and govern the state: legislative, executive and judicial forces. The beginning and source of these forces is in the people: for they are nothing else than the moral and physical strength of people in relation to community life. But these forces, when scattered, are dead forces. They produce no law, no rights, no duties. To make them active, they had to be united and brought into balance. The combined action of these forces constitutes sovereign power. Their combinations in sovereign power can be varied. Of these many different combinations, the fundamental laws determine one constant and indispensable one. So, the subject and property of state fundamental laws is to determine the way in which state forces are interfaced and act in their combination.

14.4. What approach to understanding law is reflected in the text? Name two other Russian or foreign thinkers of the 17th–19th centuries who adhered to the same approach to understanding law as the author of the text.

14.5. The author writes: “Laws exist for the benefit and safety of the people subject to them. But benefit and safety are vague concepts, subject to various changes. If the laws were changed according to a different image of these concepts, they would soon become confused and could even become contrary to the end for which they exist.” How did you understand the author's idea? Do you agree with her? Give one argument and one example to support your position.

Answer:

Response Elements	Points
14.1. Should be named: public law, private law	2 points for each correctly indicated position. Maximum 4 points
14.2. Constitutional law	2 points for correctly named branch of law
14.3. A) According to the author, the main source of power is the people.	1 point for correctly indicating the source of power. 1 point for the three specified branches of government. 0 points otherwise. Maximum 2 points
14.4. A) The text reflects the natural law approach to understanding law. B) T. Hobbes, J. Locke, Voltaire, C. Montesquieu, J.J. can be named. Russo, A.N. Radishchev	2 points for the correct name of the approach to understanding law. 2 points for each correct name of representatives of the approach. Maximum 6 points
14.5. A) The author says that there are some immutable foundations of legislation that are not subject to change, unlike the concepts of benefit and safety. Possible answers B) 1. No, I don’t agree. Laws must ensure safety and meet the needs of society; accordingly, they must change with changes in society’s understanding of the concepts of benefit and safety. US law regarding the government's ability to wiretap citizens' private telephone conversations has changed since 9/11. 2. Yes, I agree. Laws must remain unchanged to ensure the stability of society. The US Constitution was adopted in 1787, and its basic text has not changed until now	2 points for explaining the author's thoughts. 2 points for the given argument 2 points for the given example Maximum 6 points
Maximum per task	20 points

Task 15

Read the statements of famous people. In each case, several statements are devoted to one social science concept (in quotes the concept itself is replaced by asterisks). In different statements, the form of the word denoting this concept, or the part of speech, may change. Define the concepts and write the answer directly in the table.

Statements	Concepts
ABOUT. Bismarck) TO. Marx)
B) *** – it’s me. ( LouisXIV) B. Vysheslavtsev)
T. Edison) ABOUT. Spengler)
L. Peter) D. Austin)

Answer:

STATEMENT	CONCEPT
A) *** is the art of the possible. ( ABOUT. Bismarck) In *** you can unite for a certain purpose even with the devil himself - you just need to be sure that you will fool the devil, and not the devil you. ( TO. Marx)	policy
B) *** – it’s me. ( LouisXIV) *** is a combination of law and power. ( B. Vysheslavtsev)	state
C) The most important task *** is to teach a person to think. ( T. Edison) Dying, culture turns into ***. ( ABOUT. Spengler)	civilization
D) *** is the art of satisfying unlimited needs with limited resources. ( L. Peter) *** is a way to spend money without getting any pleasure from it. ( D. Austin)	economy

Words can be named— synonyms, accurately reflecting the meaning of the author's thoughts.

By2 point for each correct word.

Maximum per task8 points.

Task 16

Here are the statements of famous domestic and foreign thinkers. Choose one that will become the topic of your essay. Your task is to formulate your own attitude to the problem raised in this statement and justify it with those arguments that seem to you the most significant. Having chosen a topic, be sure to indicate from the perspective of which basic science (cultural studies, political science, sociology, philosophy, economics, jurisprudence) you will consider it.

1. Without ideals, that is, without at least some definite desires for the best, no good reality can ever arise. (F. M. Dostoevsky)
2. To make it easy to live with each person, think about what connects you, and not about what separates you from him. (L. N. Tolstoy)
3. A ballot paper is stronger than a bullet. (A. Lincoln)
4. It is not need, but rather abundance that gives rise to greed in us. (M. Montaigne)
5. He who fears poverty is unworthy of wealth. (Voltaire)
6. It is much better to prevent crimes than to punish them. (CatherineII)

Criteria for assessing essay essays

If the essay— the essay is not written in the context of basic science or the basic science is not defined, then the maximum score, which can be assessed for each evaluation criterion, ‒ 3.

1. The ability to highlight the problem posed by the author, justify its significance for social sciences and social practice.
2. The ability to formulate and justify one’s own point of view when discussing a topic.
3. Level of argumentation:
   • a) internal semantic unity, consistency of key theses and statements, consistency of judgments;
   • b) reliance on scientific theories, mastery of course concepts;
   • c) reliance on the facts of social life, personal social experience;
   • d) examples from works of spiritual culture (literature, theater, cinema, painting, etc.).
4. Ability to formulate the main conclusions based on the results of consideration of the topic.

Before4 points for each criterion.

Maximum per task28 points.

Maximum for work125 points.