Agrarian society dimensions duration method of farming. Agrarian societies

Scientific literature contains many definitions of the concept “society”. So, in a narrow sense, it is a group of people who have united to perform some kind of activity and communication, as well as a specific stage in the historical development of a country or people. In the broad sense, it is a part of the material world, isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, consisting of individuals with consciousness and will, including the ways of their interaction.

In the 20th century, R. Aron put forward a theory which was then improved by American sociologists and political scientists A. Toffler, D. Bell, Z. Brzezinski. It describes the progressive process of development of a backward society to an advanced one. In total, there were 3 stages: agricultural (pre-industrial), industrial and post-industrial.

Agrarian society is the first stage of civilized development. In some sources it is also called traditional. Characteristic of Antiquity and the Middle Ages. However, it is still common in some states today. To a greater extent, the countries of the “third world” (Africa, Asia).

The following characteristics of an agrarian society can be distinguished:

The economy is based on primitive crafts and rural subsistence farming. Mainly hand tools are used. Industry is either very little developed or completely absent. Most of the population lives in rural areas, engaged in agriculture.
The dominance of state and communal forms of ownership; and private property is not inviolable. Material benefits are distributed depending on a person's position in the social hierarchy.
The pace is low.
practically unchanged. A person is born into a certain class or caste and does not change his position throughout his life. The main social units are the community and the family.
Conservatism of society. Any changes occur slowly and spontaneously.
Human behavior is regulated by beliefs, customs, corporate principles and norms. Independence and individuality are not encouraged. determines the norms of behavior for the individual. A person does not analyze his situation, he strives to adapt to the environment. He evaluates everything that happens to him from the position of the social group to which he belongs.
An agrarian society presupposes the strong power of the army and the church, and the ordinary person is removed from politics.
A limited number of educated people, the predominance of oral information over written information.
Priority over economic life, human life is perceived as the implementation of divine providence.

As a result of economic, political, social and spiritual development, agrarian society in most countries has moved to the industrial stage, which is characterized by an increase in labor productivity in agriculture and industry, an increase in the volume of fixed capital, and an increase in income of the population.

New classes emerge - the bourgeoisie and the industrial proletariat. The number of peasants in the population is decreasing, and urbanization is taking place. The role of the state is increasing. Agrarian society and industrial society opposed each other in all directions.

The post-industrial stage is characterized by the development of the service sector, bringing them to the forefront, and increasing the role of knowledge, science and information. Class differences are being erased, and the share of the middle class is increasing.

Agrarian society, from a Eurocentric point of view, is a backward, closed, primitive social organism, to which Western sociology contrasts industrial and post-industrial civilizations.

The concept of an agrarian society

Definition 1

Agrarian society is a historical stage of socio-economic development, in which the resources produced in agriculture are of greatest importance.

Its emergence became possible thanks to the Neolithic revolution. The main difference from a hunter-gatherer society is the fact that people in agrarian societies have ways of producing more food from a small amount of space. In connection with this fact, the population density in such a society increases many times over, which in turn inevitably entails a complication of the socio-political organization of the existing social system.

The main characteristic features of an agrarian society

This type of society is characterized by weak social differentiation among its members;
the overwhelming predominance of the rural population over the urban;
the main type of production is agriculture;
weak and insignificant development of industrial sectors;

Characteristics of an agricultural society

The technological basis of the agrarian type of society and agrarian civilization as a whole is the variety of agricultural tools used by people using human and animal energy. Thanks to this diversity, the emergence of family and other cooperation between people is possible, which allows for more active reproduction of material wealth.
The demographic and social characteristics of an agrarian society lie in the dominant role of the patriarchal family, which includes parents, children, grandparents, relatives living together and doing the same thing to get the best result.
The basis of the economic subsystem of an agrarian society is the agricultural method of production, the main subject of labor in which is the land and human life activities constantly associated with it.
The industrial production of the agricultural era is characterized by the production of iron and steel, the invention of iron and steel tools and weapons, and the application of industrial knowledge and human power to the cultivation of land.
The economic strength of this era lies in private and communal ownership of means of processing, tools and land. During this period of development of society, a process of deepening the division of labor is taking place, and the handicraft sector is actively growing.
The political subsystem of the agrarian era is an unstable empire, which is based on the army, the bureaucracy existing in society, private and civil law, and community self-government. The times of the emergence and existence of agrarian society are characterized by continuous wars, which became especially bloody due to the invention of iron weapons. Also, due to the constant military threat from the outside, the process of strengthening cities, which were surrounded by walls, ditches, and guarded by the army almost constantly, is actively underway.
The spiritual subsystem of the agrarian era is characterized by the dominance of mythology and religion over the consciousness of people. An agrarian society is characterized by a struggle between different religious and worldview systems. There is active construction of temples, music, dance and architectural arts are developing. The beginnings of education and science appear.
Social consciousness in an agrarian society is mythological, religious in nature and represents a set of myths that are unconditionally believed. In people's minds, the unconscious dominates the conscious, and spiritual development is relegated to the background.

Agrarian society is a stage of socio-economic development in which the greatest contribution to the cost of material goods is made by the cost of resources produced in agriculture.

Agrarian society is a concept that characterizes the socio-economic development of society, its specific stage, in which agriculture predominates, there is a rigid class hierarchy, and the decisive role in socio-political life belongs to the church and the army. This is the first stage of development of society.

“Peasant society” and “traditional society” are synonyms for the concept of “agrarian society,” the definition of which began to be actively used in the 50-60s of the last century. Since the concept of industrial society has become widespread.

Traditional or agrarian society is a close interaction between man and nature, his competition with it. The features of this type of society are manifested in all spheres of life (social, economic, spiritual, political).

The agricultural type of society implies social relations based on subordination. Everyone is included in the collective, everyone becomes part of it. A person was usually born, started a family, and died in one place and environment. His life and work activities passed from generation to generation, that is, they were reproduced. Changing the team was difficult or even tragic. The life span of people in such a society was quite short. This is 40-50 years. There was a high mortality rate due to not very developed medicine, and other areas of life. Mortality was compensated by high birth rates.

In the economic sphere, there is a complete dependence of the economy on nature and climate. The most common types of economy are cattle breeding and agriculture; their distribution depends on a person’s position in the social hierarchy. In general, people work individually, mainly manually, without the use of any equipment.

The basis of an agrarian society was the agricultural community, the relationships in which were very strong due to descent from a common ancestor and recognition of each other as relatives. The basis of the community was the collective use of land, joint labor activity, and periodic redistribution of land. Agrarian society is characterized by low dynamics. The position of each person in it directly depends on what social status he occupies and whether he is close to power. The eldest (head of the family, clan, leader) is indisputable, regardless of what personal qualities he possesses, whether he has won the love and respect of other members of the community. In a traditional society, old people are always revered. It is based on written and unwritten traditions, norms and customs. Conflicts, disputes, and disagreements are resolved with the participation of a senior, authoritative member of society.

We can say that an agrarian society is closed, self-sufficient, it does not allow any influence on it from the outside. Traditions determine political life, not laws. Power is of greater value than law; it does not require any justification. Since it is inherited by the will of God, that is, the ruler carries out the will of the highest powers on earth. Power is always with one person; most often he prefers a despotic type of government, being the supreme ruler of the earth. We can say that society, and the state itself, seeks to suppress a person and his personality. Thus, the form of government of an agrarian society is monarchy.

The concept of fashion as such did not exist. Each nation had a generally accepted way of dressing, that is, a national costume, which changed very little or remained unchanged for a long time. Social hierarchy was very evident in clothing. Depending on belonging to a particular stratum, a person’s national costume also changed.

During the agrarian period of human history, a very significant event occurred. This is the emergence of writing and the emergence of a special estate or class of people - the learned class. Only a few were literate during the mid-agrarian era. Only a few societies created their own written language. However, very few people in these societies could actually read and write.

Literacy leads to the centralization and accumulation of knowledge and culture. Although there is rivalry and disagreement between the learned class and the clergy.

Thus, we can highlight the characteristic features of an agrarian society:

Predominance of agricultural production;
little or no production development;
weak social differentiation;
predominance of the rural population.

In the modern world there are no longer examples of such a structure of society, although it is possible to cite as an example the various Aboriginal tribes that live in Australia and Africa. Destruction of an agrarian society In modern times, human civilization began to change and take on a modern appearance.

The features of the old agrarian society were destroyed, and in their place the features of a new society grew.

The destruction of agrarian society became the main content of the entire modern era.

*Destruction of agrarian society*
Features of an agrarian society	Signs of the destruction of an agrarian society
The basis of the economy is agriculture	The emergence and growth of the machine industry
The vast majority of people live in villages and engage in subsistence farming	Growth of cities, replacement of subsistence economy with market economy
Society consists of separate classes and communities, the rights and responsibilities of a person depend on origin	Destruction of class barriers and the struggle for equal rights of citizens
As a rule, only the landowning nobility can influence government	Declining influence of the landowning nobility, the emergence of democratic elections and parliaments as a result of revolutions or reforms
The culture, worldview and social life of most people are subordinated to religion, traditions and customs of their ancestors	Declining influence of religion and church
There are few literate people in society	Spreading literacy and education

Signs of destruction of an agrarian society:

1. The emergence and growth of the machine industry. The growth of cities, the replacement of a subsistence economy with a market economy.
2. The destruction of class barriers and the struggle for equal rights for citizens.
3. Decrease in the influence of the landowning nobility, the emergence of democratic elections and parliaments as a result of revolutions or reforms.
4. Reducing the influence of religion and church on culture. Spreading literacy and education.

Signs of an agrarian society

The following characteristics of an agrarian society can be distinguished:

The economy is based on primitive crafts and rural subsistence farming. Mainly hand tools are used. Industry is either very little developed or completely absent. Most of the population lives in rural areas, engaged in agriculture.

The dominance of state and communal forms of ownership; and private property is not inviolable. Material benefits are distributed depending on a person's position in the social hierarchy.

Economic growth rates are low.

The social structure is practically unchanged. A person is born into a certain class or caste and does not change his position throughout his life. The main social units are the community and the family.

Conservatism of society. Any changes occur slowly and spontaneously.

Human behavior is regulated by beliefs, customs, corporate principles and norms. Independence and individuality are not encouraged. The social group determines the norms of behavior for the individual. A person does not analyze his situation, he strives to adapt to the environment. He evaluates everything that happens to him from the position of the social group to which he belongs.

An agrarian society presupposes the strong power of the army and the church, and the ordinary person is removed from politics.

A limited number of educated people, the predominance of oral information over written information.

The priority of the spiritual sphere over the economic sphere, human life is perceived as the implementation of divine providence.

In the broad sense, it is a part of the material world, isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, consisting of individuals with consciousness and will, including forms of unification of people and ways of their interaction.

In the 20th century, R. Aron put forward the theory of industrial society, which was then improved by American sociologists and political scientists A. Toffler, D. Bell, Z. Brzezinski. It describes the progressive process of development of a backward society to an advanced one. In total, there were 3 stages: agricultural (pre-industrial), industrial and post-industrial.

Traditional agrarian society

Traditional society is a society that is regulated by tradition. Preservation of traditions is a higher value in it than development. The social structure in it is characterized by a rigid class hierarchy, the existence of stable social communities (especially in Eastern countries), and a special way of regulating the life of society, based on traditions and customs. This organization of society strives to preserve the socio-cultural foundations of life unchanged.

Traditional society is an agrarian society.

A traditional society is usually characterized by:

Traditional Economics;
- predominance of the agricultural way of life;
- stability of the structure;
- class organization;
- low mobility;
- high mortality rate;
- high birth rate;
- low life expectancy.

A traditional person perceives the world and the established order of life as something inextricably integral, sacred and not subject to change. A person’s place in society and his status are determined by tradition (usually by birthright).

In a traditional society, collectivist attitudes predominate, individualism is not encouraged (since freedom of individual action can lead to a violation of the established order, time-tested). In general, traditional societies are characterized by the primacy of collective interests over private ones, including the primacy of the interests of existing hierarchical structures (state, clan, etc.). What is valued is not so much individual capacity as the place in the hierarchy (official, class, clan, etc.) that a person occupies.

In a traditional society, as a rule, relations of redistribution rather than market exchange predominate, and elements of a market economy are strictly regulated. This is due to the fact that free market relations increase social mobility and change the social structure of society (in particular, they destroy class); the redistribution system can be regulated by tradition, but market prices cannot; forced redistribution prevents unauthorized enrichment/impoverishment of both individuals and classes. The pursuit of economic gain in traditional society is often morally condemned and opposed to selfless help.

In a traditional society, most people live their entire lives in a local community (for example, a village), and connections with the larger society are rather weak. At the same time, family ties, on the contrary, are very strong.

The worldview (ideology) of a traditional society is determined by tradition and authority.

Traditional society is extremely stable. As the famous demographer and sociologist Anatoly Vishnevsky writes, everything in it is interconnected and it is very difficult to remove or change any one element.

Opinions about the need (and extent) of transformation of traditional society differ significantly. For example, the philosopher A. Dugin considers it necessary to abandon the principles of modern society and return to the golden age of traditionalism. Sociologist and demographer A. Vishnevsky argues that traditional society has no chance, although it fiercely resists. According to the calculations of Academician of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences, Professor A. Nazaretyan, in order to completely abandon development and return society to a static state, the number of humanity must be reduced by several hundred times.

Agrarian type of society

Around the V-IV millennia BC. e. a gradual transformation of the primitive communal (tribal) society into an agrarian-political (Asian, Eastern) society begins. By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. Three types of state-societies arose: small kingdoms (principalities); federations (conglomerates) of kingdoms in which the core was one strong kingdom (this was later the case with Kievan Rus); empires are large territorial, multi-ethnic states with strong centralized governance. In empires, one tribe (people) occupied a dominant spiritual, political and economic position. The centers of empires became areas located on trade routes connecting kingdoms with different social divisions of labor: agricultural, pastoral, craft. Ancient local civilizations of the Sumerians, Egyptians and others arose in them.

The technological basis of the agrarian (pre-industrial) type of society and agrarian civilization was a variety of agricultural tools (plow, axe, harrow, etc.) based on the use of muscular energy of humans and animals. From it arises simple family and other cooperation, which allows for the expanded reproduction of material goods and people.

The demosocial subsystem of pre-industrial society is characterized by: a patriarchal family, including parents, children, grandparents, relatives; the majority of the population living in villages - household unions; inequality in the consumption of material and spiritual goods; mythological consciousness of people; natural demosocial consumption with market elements.

The economic subsystem of the agrarian era is characterized by the agricultural mode of production, in which the main subject of labor was the land and the human activity associated with it. The productive force of the agrarian era was the production of iron and steel, the invention of iron and steel tools and weapons, and the application of industrial knowledge and the muscular power of people. The economic strength of this era was private and communal ownership of the means of production and land; The division of labor deepened and the craft sector grew. The vast majority of the population worked in agriculture.

The political subsystem of the agrarian era was represented by unstable empires based on the army, bureaucracy, private and civil law, and communal self-government: New Assyrian (IX-VII centuries BC; Western Asia, except Urartu and Asia Minor); New Babylonian and Median (VII-VI centuries BC); later Hellenistic, Indian and Chinese empires arose (for example, the Qin Empire; IV-III centuries BC). There were continuous wars, which became especially bloody after the invention of iron weapons; fortified cities arose - centers of kingdoms - surrounded by walls, permanent armies, and colonies.

The spiritual subsystem of the agrarian era is characterized by: the dominance of mythology and religion, the construction of temples; the development of certain types of art (musical, epic, dance, architectural); the beginnings of education and science; the struggle of various religious (worldview) systems.

Public consciousness was of a mythological, religious nature and was a collection of myths; the unconscious in him dominated the conscious, and the spiritual remained undeveloped.

In the kingdoms and empires of early and imperial antiquity, elements of two types of formations arose and competed with each other: (1) political (state, Asian, mobilization) and (2) economic (market, European, liberal). Some of them became leaders in some kingdom or empire. Some of these societies created social and then world religious civilizations (Egyptian, Greek, Persian). For almost two millennia of the agrarian era, political and economic empires, formations, and civilizations waged an ideological, economic, political and military struggle for dominance.

In the VI century. BC e. The Achaemenid Empire conquered the ancient city-policies on the Asia Minor coast. In 336 BC. e. The Greek army was led by Alexander the Great, who defeated the Persian Empire during a ten-year campaign. As a result, the ancient type of society (formation and civilization) began to influence the Asian type of society in the Middle East. Having made Babylon his capital, Alexander tried to bring the ancient and Asian worlds closer together in terms of formation and civilization. About 70 cities were built on Asian territory - centers of ancient civilization. After Alexander's death in 323 BC. e. his followers continued this policy. Much attention was paid to creating an economic rather than a despotic state.

Ancient Greece passed the formational and civilizational baton to the Roman Republic through the Greek city-states - colonies in Italy. Rome's contribution to the development of ancient society consisted of the codification of legal norms and the detailing of private law, the significant development of democracy, which became the guardian of citizen-owners, their class and property differences. The Roman state - part of the auxiliary sphere of economic society - existed due to taxes from citizen-owners and campaigns of conquest. In the 1st century BC e. as a result of serious internal contradictions (the struggle of the Gracchi brothers for the interests of the poor), slave uprisings and conflicts of power-hungers, the Roman Republic gave way to the Roman Empire, a political and economic formation and civilization.

In the 5th century The Roman Empire fell under the blows of the barbarians. Its successors were the Holy Roman Empire and Byzantium. Greek territories became provinces of the Roman East. Then came the time of Christianization and Christian civilization in Byzantium, the heir of Rome. As a result of the victory of Islam over Byzantium in 1453, the Middle East suddenly threw off the elements of ancient formation and civilization, and again found itself in the usual rut of the Asian formation and civilization, which were developed in Islamic civilization.

Leonid Vasiliev believes that in this region the Greeks and Romans carried out an experiment on the “organic synthesis of the ancient world and the traditional East,” which failed. Instead, in Palestine, at the crossroads of nations, a new world religion arose - Christianity, which laid the foundation for a new social formation and civilization. Originating from the Eastern peoples and their civilizations, it became the religion of the West. Already here one can discern a sign of a hybrid (mixed) social formation and civilization.

Eastern (despotic) societies reached their peak in the Middle Ages, which was facilitated by the disappearance of a competitor in the ancient world. The main features of such societies are: colossal inequality in people's lives, taken for granted by the illiterate and religious population; the refined subjectivity of the ruling classes; temporary economic efficiency through the exploitation of one’s own people and the peoples of conquered countries; slow evolution in a spiral of political upheavals and social catastrophes. At the end of the 4th century, Byzantium turned out to be a field of collision between ancient and Asian formations and civilizations. This struggle led to the gradual transformation of Byzantium into a despotic empire. The process of ancient Westernization did not take place there: the Asian formation and collectivist civilization prevailed. In this regard, L.V. Vasiliev makes an important conclusion for our days: “And since the general structures underlying the ancient West and the traditional East are fundamentally different, their organic combination, synthesis, turns out to be extremely difficult. In any case, on the territory of the East, in the specific conditions of antiquity and the Middle Ages.”

In Europe, the result of all this confrontation at the end of the agrarian era (XI-XIV centuries) was feudalism - an advanced type of society (ancient Asian), with a solidarist civilization. It was the result of a clash between ancient society and primitive society. There was, on the one hand, the Christianization of the barbarians, and on the other hand, the decentralization of state power. The Christianization of barbarians limited the categorical nature of the collectivist principle, softening the omnipotence of the rulers. At the same time, she maintained respect for ancient property, especially in cities. As a result of this synthesis, a feudal type of society (formations and civilizations) arose, which allows us to conclude that the convergence of only such social formations and civilizations is possible, between which there are some similarities. They were between the primitive communal society of the barbarians and the ancient one of the Romans. It can be assumed that the ancient and Asian types of society did not have such features, which led to the collapse of the project of Alexander the Great.

Why did the synthesis (convergence) of Asian and ancient societies not take place in a new unity? Because these types of society form opposites within the same historical era. It is obvious that a society in which the basis is a market economy, and the civilizational principle is freedom, cannot simply and evolutionarily converge with a society in which the basis is a despotic state, and the civilizational principle is equality. For the convergence of such societies, a developed subjective factor is needed, an understanding of the complexity of the problem, developed means of convergence, which did not exist in the agrarian era - all this appeared only in the era of industrialism.

Agrarian post-industrial society

Most often, societies are classified into three large groups: traditional (agrarian), industrial and post-industrial. This division is based on the specificity of the prevailing production method. Each of these species is characterized by a certain set of the most typical features.

Thus, a traditional (agrarian) society can be characterized as follows: the predominant type of production is agriculture. Characterized by limited social mobility and strong social control. The rules of existence are determined by traditions. In this case, commodity relations are either absent altogether or are focused on meeting the needs of a small segment of the population. It is believed that any society from the primitive community to the industrial revolution of the late 18th century can be called traditional. Characterized by the use of manual labor and simple machines. In traditional society, due to its “closedness,” changes occurred slowly.

Examples of modern countries of the traditional (agrarian) type (based on analysis of GDP components): most countries of North Africa (Algeria), countries of northeast Africa (Ethiopia, where agriculture accounts for 54% of GDP), countries of southeast Asia (Vietnam, where 79% of the population is rural).

In Russia, industrialization began only in the middle of the 19th century. This alone did not prevent our country, by the end of the 19th century, from being one of the largest and strongest states and from having the status of a great European power.

An industrial society is characterized by the fact that the greatest contribution to the economy comes from the extraction and processing of natural resources, as well as industry. Typically, about 80% of the population is employed in industry. The industrial revolution leads to the transition from a traditional society to an industrial one.

It is important to understand what the industrial revolution is. This is a process of socio-economic transition from an agricultural type to an industrial type with the predominance of industrial production. Along with the development of industry, there is a rapid development of science, technology, means of communication, and an increase in people's living standards. The first country to experience the industrial revolution was Great Britain.

The changes taking place in society affect all spheres of life. Thus, families break up, generations begin to live in different places, cities grow, and people actively move there (urbanization is the process of growth of cities and increasing their role in the life of society, associated with the active relocation of the population to cities).

According to the French scientist Raymond Aron, industrial society is the result of the influence of production automation, the emergence of large-scale industries and increased labor productivity.

American sociologist William Rostow believes that sociocultural factors (the growth of scientific knowledge, the impulses and aspirations of people) also had a great influence on this process.

The society of the type under consideration is characterized by dynamic changes and increased social mobility. The structure of society is also changing, classes are being replaced by social groups. The rights and freedoms of citizens are expanding.

Post-industrial society is defined by the following features: concepts of this type of society appeared in the 1960s. The leading role in society is given to knowledge, information, and computers. The service sector is expanding, obtaining a quality education is becoming important, and an information society is beginning to take shape. In such a society, scientific developments are the main driving force of the economy. The commodity-producing economy is moving to a service economy.

It is important to understand that the service sector includes not only trade and the household sphere, but also the state, army, transport, healthcare, education, science, culture, production and sale of intellectual property (software).

Automation of production occurs, the importance of human participation in production decreases.

The pace of economic development is increasing manifold.

P. Drucker: “Today knowledge is already applied to the sphere of knowledge itself, and this can be called a revolution in the field of management. Knowledge is quickly becoming the determining factor of production, relegating both capital and labor to the background.”

Post-industrial society is also associated with the era of postmodernism (postmodernity is a state of modern culture that includes a unique philosophical position).

Social consciousness is changing: rejection of the universality and unity of the world.

The main features are also called the strengthening of pluralism, multivariance and diversity of forms of social development, changes in the system of values, motives and incentives of people.

Features of an agrarian society

Main characteristics of an agricultural society:

Relatively weak social differentiation (it is, however, quite high in comparison with most hunting-gathering societies);
- predominance of the rural population;
- the main type of production is agriculture;
- some development of extractive industries;
- insignificant development of industrial sectors.

A characteristic feature of the long-term dynamics of agrarian societies are political and demographic cycles.

Features of an industrial society:

1. History moves unevenly, in leaps and bounds, the gaps between eras are obvious, often these are revolutions of different types.
2. Socio-historical progress is quite obvious and can be “measured” using various criteria.
3. Society strives to dominate nature, subjugating it and extracting the maximum possible from it.
4. The basis of the economy is the institution of highly developed private property. The right of ownership is considered as natural and inalienable.
5. Social mobility of the population is high, the possibilities of social movements are practically unlimited.
6. Society is autonomous from the state, a developed civil society has emerged.
7. Autonomy, freedoms and individual rights are constitutionally enshrined as inalienable and innate. Relations between the individual and society are built on the principles of mutual responsibility.
8. The ability and readiness for change and innovation are recognized as the most important social values.

An industrial society is characterized by a dramatic increase in industrial and agricultural production unimaginable in previous eras; the rapid development of science and technology, means of communication, the invention of newspapers, radio and television; a dramatic expansion of propaganda capabilities; sharp population growth, increasing life expectancy; a significant increase in living standards compared to previous eras; a sharp increase in population mobility; complex division of labor not only within individual countries, but also on an international scale; centralized state; smoothing of horizontal differentiation of the population (dividing it into castes, estates, classes) and growth of vertical differentiation (dividing society into nations, “worlds,” regions).

Countries of agrarian society

In this article we will look at examples of states that basically have an agrarian economic structure. First I recommend understanding the general classification. The fact is that agriculture and cattle breeding are represented mainly in developing countries. The fact is that this is directly related to the technical advancement of each specific country, which is why great powers concentrate their attention on high technology and large cities. Basically, they buy food from agricultural countries of the poor world.

Now let’s look at a list with specific examples of states where good agriculture is the basis of the economy:

Nepal
Papua New Guinea
Ethiopia
India
Laos
Butane
Mali
Chad

The types of agricultural countries in the world have their own general structure, by which one can understand the economic situation and level of progress. It becomes clear that these are primarily poor representatives. They form the agricultural core of the whole world. Thanks to all of them, the developed ones receive more provisions, which allows them to live peacefully, well-fed and safe.

As the world's technological and economic prosperity increased, directions in production were changed. The change of eras created ever newer priorities. Here I mean industrial society. This transition expanded technical capabilities and quantitatively reduced agriculture in these areas. There is a clear line that the better developed the population is, the worse the situation with the land.

Now let’s talk about how the world agricultural system works and whether this activity is successful in practice. It can be noted that in most cases industry figures very poorly in them. People have to do their work manually. This has a negative impact on the livelihoods of the local population. In all such regions, rural residents are almost everywhere. This business is the leading source of their income, albeit not so huge. The division of labor does not concern them, since it is needed in a more advanced society.

Middle-level countries can already afford to combine industrial resources and apply them in the global division of labor to achieve high results in planting and growing crops. It becomes easier for any population, since labor is already automated in some way.

As an example of countries with developed agricultural policies, the following can be noted:

Russia
China
Brazil
France
Germany

The last two of them are absolutely developed in the world. For them, agriculture is not the basis of the economy, but they can produce a lot and of high quality. This is a clear example of high technology being used in the right way.

Development of agrarian society

Human society went through several stages, steps in its development, before acquiring its modern appearance.

Scientists distinguish the stages of development of society, primarily by the method of obtaining means of subsistence and forms of management. From ancient times to the present day, the following stages can be distinguished in the development of society: a society of hunters and gatherers, a society of gardening, a society of cattle breeders, an agricultural society, and an industrial (industrial) society.

Hunter-Gatherer Society

The most ancient method of subsistence was hunting and gathering. Therefore, scientists call the society of hunters and gatherers the first stage in human history.

It consisted of small groups of 20 to 60 people, related by blood and leading a nomadic lifestyle. They did not have a permanent habitat. It was replaced by temporary shelters, where men built camps where, when going on a long hunt, they left women, children and the elderly.

To feed the entire primitive group, a large amount of food was required, so the hunters had to move very long distances.

Women were engaged in gathering. It was associated not only with collecting edible plants. So, in coastal areas, people collected shellfish left after the sea tide. At one site in North Africa, scientists discovered millions of earth snail shells. When the local snail colony was depleted, the people who lived here wandered, changing their camp sites. They also ate several types of plants, including various grasses, fruits, nuts, and acorns.

In ancient times, people themselves could not produce everything they needed to satisfy their needs. They took what nature provided ready-made. When food supplies were exhausted, groups of people migrated to other places. Their routes depended on the seasonal ripening of fruits, spawning of fish and directions of movement of animals.

This was the longest period of human life. Scientists call it the “childhood” of human society.

Despite the fact that this period is far behind us, researchers still discover living evidence of history in various parts of the vast planet - primitive tribes of nomadic hunters and gatherers. They can be found in Madagascar, South Asia, Malaysia, the Philippines and other islands along the Indian Ocean coast.

Horticulture Society

Hunting and gathering continued for hundreds of thousands of years.

Then humanity moved on to the next stage - gardening. People uprooted part of the forest, burned stumps, dug holes with wooden hoes and planted tubers of wild vegetables in them, which over time turned into cultivated ones.

The wandering lifestyle was gradually replaced by a sedentary one. However, it has not yet become the main feature of people's lives. Having used one plot of land for a garden and depleted the soil, people abandoned it and moved to a new one. And since the land was depleted quickly, the community stayed in one place for only a few years.

Vegetable gardening was a transitional form of farming; people moved from obtaining ready-made natural products (wild plants) to growing cultivated vegetables and grains. Small vegetable gardens eventually gave way to vast fields, primitive wooden hoes gave way to wooden ones, and later to iron plows or plows.

As tools became more sophisticated, labor productivity increased. One person could feed more people than before. Temporary sites turned into permanent settlements, surrounded by vegetable gardens and cattle pens.

Communities united and created tribes.

Society of Farmers and Cattle Breeders

At the end of the Stone Age, the first global food crisis began. People had to learn a new productive way of farming, in which more products were obtained from the same territory thanks to the improvement of tools and its organization. This method of farming was farming - plowing, sowing the land and harvesting from the same plot for many years.

Middle Easterners became the first farmers and shepherds. They began to sow and cultivate the land, and cultivated cereals were grown from wild wheat. People now have a supply of food. Hunters stopped killing caught lambs and kids and brought them with them to the settlements. So gradually people tamed wild animals and moved from hunting to cattle breeding, from appropriating what nature itself gave them to producing the necessary products.

Arable farming tied people to one place and contributed to the transition from a nomadic to a sedentary lifestyle. The population grew and life expectancy increased. Large agricultural settlements arose, which eventually turned into cities.

An increasing number of people were freed from the need to work on the land. Some of them took up handicrafts. The division of labor led to the need to exchange the products of labor of farmers, cattle breeders and artisans. Cities became the concentration of trade, craft, and cultural life. Humanity has moved to a new stage of management - the state.

With the development of agriculture, cattle breeding and the division of labor, society became stratified along property lines, cities, states, and writing appeared, and a transition to civilization took place.

From an agricultural society to an industrial one

Many scientists combine societies of hunters and gatherers, gardeners, pastoralists and farmers into one stage of development, which is called an agrarian society. Agriculture dominated the agrarian society. This society is also called traditional, because the life of people in it was closely connected with nature and subordinated to customs and traditions.

More than 200 years ago, an agrarian society was replaced by an industrial one, in which it was no longer agriculture that predominated, but industry - industry. The formation of industrial society was associated with the spread of large-scale machine production and the emergence of social groups of entrepreneurs and hired workers.

Agrarian society is a stage in the development of society in which agriculture predominates.

Industrial society is a stage in the development of society in which industry predominates.

Information (post-industrial) society is a society in which knowledge and information play the main role.

Many countries of the modern world are classified as industrial societies, including Russia. The most developed countries at the end of the 20th century entered a post-industrial (information) society, which ensures a high level of development of science and technology, education, services, information technology (processes of processing, storage, control and transmission of information). These include countries such as the USA, Canada, Japan and developed countries in Western Europe.

Studying history, we see how human society and different aspects of social life change over time. Scientists note that the closer we get to our time, the faster society develops and the pace of social change increases. The development of society itself, its economy, culture, state, sphere of work and life is called social progress. The basis for the development of society is the improvement of tools and technology - technical progress - and the development of man himself, who intelligently uses his achievements.

Modern hunters and gatherers

The aborigines of Australia, who have inhabited the continent for more than 40 thousand years, have not yet switched to agriculture and cattle breeding. The Eskimos of Alaska and Canada are hunters. More recently, they began using rifles and switched to snowmobiles. The indigenous population of the states of California, Oregon, Washington and the District of Columbia (USA) are engaged in gathering, just like the Indians on the Great Lakes of Canada. For many Native Americans, fishing, hunting, and gathering remain important sources of livelihood. They sell game and fish and live on the proceeds. The grassy plains of Argentina, southern Brazil, Uruguay and Paraguay are also home to hunter-gatherers. There are about five thousand such groups of peoples in the world, with a total population of about 300 million people. In addition to the fact that they belong to the least developed part of the world's population, these peoples tend to live in regions rich in natural resources. For this reason, they often find themselves at the center of numerous conflicts. In order to free up land for industrial development, indigenous peoples are resettled to other places or to cities.

Factor of agrarian society

The specifics of agricultural entrepreneurship can be explained from two points of view. Firstly, the competitiveness of factor markets. Secondly, the peculiarity of the demand for agricultural products. The specificity of land as the main factor of agricultural production is that the price of land and its quality have a decisive impact on the choice of selection, combination and use of other production resources in the field of agribusiness.

The demand for agricultural products predetermines the emergence of the problem of low incomes in agricultural production: additional production of agricultural products entails a rapid decrease in marginal utility.

Agricultural entrepreneurship is directly affected by processes occurring in living nature and reflected in the level of soil fertility, climate and weather phenomena affecting the production process.

The basis of the economic specifics of agricultural entrepreneurship is land ownership as its main factor. The form of ownership of land determines the type of monopoly - private, group or state, and the appropriation of income received from it - rent. The form of production on land determines the type of monopoly on a given factor as an object of farming. The interaction of monopolies establishes the form of income distribution in agricultural entrepreneurship between the owner of the land and its tenant.

The redistribution of land ownership, the transition from a state monopoly to diverse forms of land appropriation is a characteristic feature of the social-market transformation of the economy in Ukraine. This process leads to the development of multi-structure and democratization of land management.

During the perestroika period, great hopes were placed on the formation of a civilized grain market, but they did not materialize. Its main problem is chaotic education, the lack of a clear, well-thought-out system for the sale of grain, confirmed by mandatory reliable documents, verified information on the quality and availability of grain. The reason for this situation is seen in the difficulties of developing the infrastructure of the grain market. Basically, it is subject to the speculative activity of market agents, which ruins the peasants and turns the grain trade into an extremely profitable business for everyone except those who grew the grain.

The central link of entrepreneurship in the agricultural sector is the formation of the agricultural market. This is the core of all change. The agricultural market is a component of a modern market economy, a form of manifestation of market relations in a specific rural sphere of commodity production. Market relations develop as relationships between owners of agricultural resources and manufacturers of products, based on free decision-making.

In principle, the agricultural market is characterized by the same characteristics as the entire market system. However, there is also some originality. It is predetermined by the specifics of agrarian relations that connect economic and natural processes of production activity.

The agricultural market is distinguished by the supply of essential goods and continuous demand. Because of this, supply and demand in it are more elastic than in other markets, the assortment of goods is distinguished by relative homogeneity: from century to century people trade in grain, vegetables, fruits, meat and dairy products. Prices here are influenced by the seasonality of production of goods; regional and climatic factors. Commodity producers have to operate in an unstable environment and increased business risk.

Political instability in the country has left its mark on the state of agricultural entrepreneurship. Sharp battles for power between political parties and associations continued for several years. There was often a lack of unity on key issues of agricultural policy and strategy. Because of this, the laws being developed, reflecting the agrarian-economic strategy, sometimes contradicted each other. Measures for their implementation were not supported.

The condition of the land is of concern. Their fertile properties decrease. It is advisable in Ukrainian legislation to develop in more detail measures of responsibility of land users for maintaining the quality of sites. It would be useful to take care of stimulating rural producers for the rational use of land and increasing their fertility.

A new problem has emerged that complicates the regulation of land relations - speculation. Many businessmen have appeared, buying and reselling land plots.

General aspects of agricultural entrepreneurship are complemented by regional specifics. This is important to take into account in practical activities. Regions differ in the nature and dynamics of agricultural transformations. In these conditions, it is useful to study mutual experience. It helps to equalize the growth rate of the agricultural economy, promotes the search for new reserves, and accelerates the market renewal of agriculture.

The formation of an agrarian entrepreneurial layer is combined with the reorganization of agricultural enterprises. Some farms retain their status, but most change their organizational and legal form. On the basis of reorganized farms, new types of enterprises are created, differing in their internal structure. Peasant farms arose. The greatest development in Ukrainian agribusiness has been achieved by various business societies, private rental enterprises, farms, and agricultural cooperatives.

New forms of ownership and management in the agricultural sector of Ukraine have been approved by a number of Laws of Ukraine and Decrees of the President of Ukraine. Today, approximately 95% of agricultural formations in Ukraine operate in non-state forms on the principles of self-sufficiency, self-financing, independence in choosing areas of activity and full responsibility for the results of work.

The most popular form of management is farms, which make up up to 73% of the total number of business entities. The share of business partnerships is 14%, private enterprises are represented by 7%. The share of state-owned enterprises accounts for no more than 1%. At the same time, the largest volumes of assets, agricultural land and workers are concentrated in their hands. 58% of the land and 54% of the assets of agricultural enterprises are concentrated in business partnerships, and 56% of the workers are employed. Private enterprises are inferior to partnerships and cooperatives in terms of asset value.

All the variety of forms of production entrepreneurship in Ukrainian agribusiness can be reduced to three: sole proprietorship, partnership, corporation.

An important role in the formation of agricultural entrepreneurship belongs to small forms of management. This is confirmed by the experience of developed countries. Its main task is to ensure the overcoming of the monopoly on production. For example, in the USA, out of 19 million different independent firms, more than 90% are small. In Japan, 99% of private businesses are small businesses.

In Ukraine, small businesses are represented by private family enterprises; farms; cooperatives, partnerships; privately rented enterprises; enterprises providing technological, technical, transport, veterinary, consulting and other services.

The emerging Ukrainian agricultural business is in dire need of effective government support and provision of cheap loans. Current loans are provided by commercial banks at high interest rates, which does not allow entrepreneurs to use them effectively.

Economics of an agrarian society

Economy (agrarian society) - the basis of the economy is agriculture. People living in villages lead a subsistence economy, which is not based on an undeveloped division of labor.

Social structure (agrarian society) - Society consists of separate classes and communities, the rights and responsibilities of a person depend on origin.

Politics (agrarian society) - The government of the state is dominated by the landowning nobility (aristocracy).

Culture (agrarian society) - The culture, worldview and social life of most people are subordinated to religion, traditions and customs of their ancestors. There are few literate people in society.

Economy (signs of modernization) - the development of market relations, the division of labor and the growth of its productivity. Industrial revolution.

Social structure (signs of modernization) - the growth of cities and urban populations, the collapse of classes and communities, the formation of civil equality.

Politics (signs of modernization) - involvement of broad sections of the population in political life (struggle for the creation of elected bodies of power, for the expansion of voting rights, increasing interest in political events).

Culture (signs of modernization) - Reducing the influence of religion and traditions on culture and public life. Gradual spread of literacy and scientific education.

Economy (industrial society) - Most people and resources are employed in the machine industry. Market relations based on a diverse division of labor are established.

Social structure (industrial society) - The urban population, as a rule, prevails over the rural one. Civil equality is established.

Politics (industrial society) - the masses of the population are involved in political life (participate in elections of political power, take part in the life of political parties).

Culture (industrial society) - mass education and diversity of worldviews are established.

Factor of production of an agrarian society

Agricultural labor is the initial and determining beginning of all social production. In relation to society, it is entirely necessary labor, creating a product that satisfies primary needs.

The law of scarcity first manifested itself in agricultural production. Both the resources of agricultural production (primarily soils suitable for farming) and the material benefits created here are available in limited quantities and are relatively rare. Production capabilities are limited and primary needs cannot be replaced. The law of substitution does not apply to them. Therefore, at any historically specific moment, any society can allocate for all other types of production. Moreover, in order to maintain economic security, each country strives for food self-sufficiency, at least at a minimum level. Therefore, the structure of national production in all countries is largely determined by the level of labor productivity that creates food, and the increase in production in the agricultural sector determines the main share of the annual increase in the gross national product.

Nowadays, all countries are characterized by structural changes in food production. As a result of cooperation and combination of agricultural labor with industrial labor, a significant part of the costs of food production falls on industrial sectors that produce labor for crop and livestock production, provide them with production services, and process their products. At the same time, there is an increase in labor productivity in crop and livestock production, which leads to a reduction in the number of amateur population engaged directly in agricultural labor. But this does not at all mean a reduction in the importance of agricultural production in people’s lives.

For this conclusion to be understandable, it is necessary to take into account the special nature of agricultural labor and its product. This is all the more necessary since agricultural production is one of the areas of business.

To engage in it successfully, you need to know the specific features of entrepreneurship in this area of material production:

The first and main feature of agricultural production is that human labor here, unlike industry, is aimed not at using the planet’s energy fixed in the past, but at accumulating it. In the early stages of the evolution of society, people obtained food for themselves by gathering and fishing, but did not know how to accumulate it. This limited their food supply and prevented the growth of the planet's population. At a certain stage, humanity fell into an ecological catastrophe that almost destroyed it: population growth exceeded the reproductive capabilities of its natural food supply. Humanity saved itself by managing to move from an appropriating economy to a producing economy: a new way of obtaining food was discovered - its production. Having moved from gathering to agriculture, from hunting to cattle breeding, people learned to capture solar energy, that is, to consciously do what plants do unconsciously. Such a transition (the Neolithic revolution) not only saved humanity from starvation, but also marked the beginning of the evolution of man as a social being. From that moment on, human labor acquired a new qualitative state - it became an economic phenomenon. The ability of agricultural labor to accumulate new energy, and the physiocrats drew attention to this, highlighting agricultural labor as productive labor, has acquired particular importance in the conditions of modern production, when, according to expert estimates, humanity annually takes ten times more energy from the planet than it is accumulated all living organisms, although this is ten times less than he needs.

The second feature of agricultural production is due to the unique working conditions used here. Having switched to food production, man now used some of the previous products of gathering and hunting not as consumer goods, but as a means of their production. The result of his work was the waste products of the “cultivated” plants and animals he grew. The main resources of such production are plants, animals and soil fertility, which in the same labor process perform the function of both objects of labor and means of labor. It should be taken into account that when performing the function of an object of labor, land, plants and animals are not considered as a material substrate, a substance of nature, which in the process of labor only has to change its form. They act as objects of labor at the preparatory stages of agricultural production, when labor is aimed at preparing the soil, plants and animals to perform the function of a means of labor: giving the soil the properties necessary for growing plants, preparing seeds for sowing and embedding them in the soil, caring for plants, feeding and caring for animals, breeding work aimed at increasing the vitality and productivity of animals and plants, etc.

Living work here is aimed at:

Firstly, to create conditions for natural means of production to realize their ability to accumulate new energy.
Secondly, living labor records accumulated energy in order to use it for future use.

As a result, a person manages through his activities to combine the natural Functions of an energy-consuming animal and an energy-accumulating plant. If in industrial production the main engine of progress is the tools of labor, then in agricultural production the leading role is played by natural factors. The economic purpose of artificial means of labor is to assist a person in his work to ensure the living conditions of natural means of production that create matter of organic nature, i.e. they perform an auxiliary, subordinate function. These circumstances determine the features of the evolutionary process in agricultural production.

The third feature of agricultural production lies in the specific nature of its product, which initially takes the unique form of a primary product. The primary product is a newly synthesized organic substance created by labor and nature. As the energy of organic matter accumulated in the current time, the primary product does not depend on a pre-quantitatively limited and qualitatively defined material substance, which is the case, for example, in the mining industry. The unlimited potential for accumulating new energy in organic matter would seem to remove the definition of rarity and limited resource from a number of agricultural production factors. In reality, the possibilities for production growth are mediated by the riskiness of agriculture, which, unlike industry, is deprived of a guarantor in the form of an available subject of labor. There are only specific means of labor available here that have the ability, in the process of their life activity, to accumulate solar energy and convert it into the energy of organic matter. Therefore, the result of labor directly depends on how these organic “machines” “work,” which are easily vulnerable and are not yet fully regulated by humans.

Agricultural work is becoming increasingly complex. As we see, the law of increasing additional costs has, in addition to the economic basis, a natural basis in the agricultural sector of production.

Characteristics of an agricultural society

The most important characteristics of society are integrity and sustainability, self-reproduction and self-sufficiency, self-regulation and self-development.

The diversity of existing and currently existing societies does not allow us to create a single classification of them. Sociologists divide all existing and existing societies into certain types. In this case, the basis of classification is a similar feature or criterion taken for comparison.

Quite common in sociology is the classification of societies into simple and complex. It is based on such criteria as the degree of social differentiation and the number of levels of management. A simple society is characterized by the absence of rich and poor, leaders and subordinates. It arose about 40 thousand years ago. The age of a complex society is much less - 10-6 thousand years. It is characterized by the presence of a state, social and economic differentiation, and a complex system of leadership and subordination.

American sociologists G. Lenski and J. Lenski proposed a classification according to the main method of earning a living, highlighting the following main types of societies:

A) society of hunters and gatherers - the most ancient and longest type of society, characterized by an appropriating type of economy;
b) a society of cattle breeders and gardeners, characterized by a transition from appropriating farming to producing agricultural production;
c) industrial society, characterized by the transition from manual labor to machine (industrial) production.

Marxist sociology based its classification of societies on a mode of production characterized by a special form of ownership. Each stage in the development of society is called a “socio-economic formation.” Its internal structure is a combination of the economic basis created and determined by the dominant form of ownership, and the socio-political and spiritual superstructure corresponding to the basis (state, family, way of life, etc.). At the same time, societies different in level and way of life, political system and culture were united into one formation only under the condition of a common method of production. This approach to the classification of society allowed K. Marx to identify four main socio-economic formations in its development, which successively replaced each other and differed in the dominant form of ownership: primitive communal (collective property), slaveholding (ownership of people, more precisely slaves), feudal (ownership of land) and capitalist (ownership of the means of production). The fifth formation, which, according to K. Marx and his followers, should replace the capitalist formation, will be the communist formation, based on the social form of ownership.

In the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. in Western sociology (O. Comte, G. Spencer, E. Durkheim), a typology of society was developed, the basis of which was the idea of two main types of society - traditional (military) and industrial (industrial). According to this typology, traditional society is distinguished by an agrarian way of economic life, low rates of production development, sedentary closed social structures, and methods of socio-political and socio-cultural regulation of society based on traditions. Industrial society, in contrast to traditional society, represents a type of organization of social life where industrial production becomes the basis of economic life. The peculiarity of this society is that the entrepreneur is both the owner and the main subject of production management, and production activity is based not on tradition, but on the achievements of science, machine production, factory organization and labor discipline, a rational economic system with free trade and a common market. Industrial society makes social structures flexible and open. The position of the individual also changes, acquiring freedom and a certain autonomy from society.

In modern sociology, the classification of societies according to the level and nature of technology proposed by D. Bell in the 60-70s of the 20th century is popular. Taking into account this criterion, D. Bell identifies three types of societies: pre-industrial, industrial and post-industrial. Moreover, the transition from one stage of development of society to another in this model occurs precisely as a result of a change in the level of technology, leading, in turn, to a change in the method of production, the dominant form of ownership, social institutions, culture, lifestyle, social structure, values and goals of society .

Pre-industrial (or traditional) society is a closed, unfree society based on a class organization, with a strong church and army as the main social institutions, with strict regulation of social norms, and an almost impenetrable social structure. Agricultural subsistence farming is predominant. Any manifestation of personal freedom is suppressed by both power structures and social institutions. Its basis is agricultural production, and its main goal is power.

Industrial society began to take shape in the middle of the 18th century as a result of the industrial revolution. It is distinguished by the flexibility of the social structure, transparency of the boundaries of social strata, social mobility, openness to innovation, a complex system of division of labor, increased specialization, and mass production of market-oriented goods. The determining factor in the development of society is industry, with the corporation and the firm as the main social institutions. A distinctive feature of society is the limitation of the functions of the state, the combination of individual freedom and the interests of society. The goal of this society is money, as a result of which a person’s place in society is determined by its quantity.

The consequence of the scientific and technological revolution that began in the mid-twentieth century is the transition of the most developed countries to the level of post-industrial society, the main factor in the development of which is science and informatization. The transition from an industrial society to a post-industrial one is accompanied by a transition from a commodity-producing economy to a service economy. As a result of this, significant changes in the social structure occur in society. Class division is giving way to professional division, property as a criterion of social inequality is losing its importance, the level of education is becoming decisive, and the importance and role of universities and research centers is increasing. Knowledge becomes the goal and main value of post-industrial society.

Existing classifications are unequal and do not exhaust the variety of bases for classifying society. At the same time, none of them can be rejected or considered the only correct one. Depending on which side of society is being studied, the necessary classification is adopted for this purpose. So, for example, if the degree of openness of a society is studied, then various political criteria are taken as a basis: form of government, political regime; if ethnic relations are studied, then societies are classified into mononational and multinational. According to the type of religion dominant in society, the Christian and Muslim worlds are distinguished. In turn, within the Christian world one can distinguish the Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant worlds. If writing is taken as the main feature of comparison as a means of preserving and transmitting knowledge, then we can distinguish between pre-literate and literate societies, etc.

Society is not a dead, frozen body, but a living, mobile social organism, invariably subject to more or less significant changes. Therefore, one of the most important problems of sociology is the problem of social changes, their mechanism and direction.

Social change is the transition of social systems, communities, institutions and organizations from one state to another. Social change means changes of any kind that occur over a period of time in social communities, groups, institutions in their relationships with each other.

There are four levels of social change:

1. global level – these are changes affecting all spheres of society (political revolutions, economic and technical development, urbanization, global migrations);
2. the level of large social groups – these are changes in the social structure of society (social mobility, social stratification);
3. level of institutions and organizations - these are changes occurring within the framework of individual social institutions associated with their reform and reorganization;
4. level of interpersonal relationships – these are changes in social connections between individuals.

All social changes occurring in society are interconnected, interdependent and lead to directed shifts in the state of society, called social processes. Moreover, social changes at a higher level usually lead to changes at a lower level. For example, a change in the political system of a society, radical changes in the economic system inevitably lead to changes in the social structure of society, changes in the value system of society and, as a consequence, to changes in social connections at the level of interpersonal relationships. Changes that occur at a lower level, as a rule, are local in nature and do not lead to changes at a higher level.

The concept of “social change” is concretized by the concept of “development”.

Analysis of sociological theories allows us to identify different types of mechanisms of social change and development: evolutionary and revolutionary, progressive and regressive, imitation and innovation.

The dominant position in sociology is occupied by the concept of social evolutionism, which dates back to the works of O. Comte and G. Spencer. She considers the process of development of society as part of the general, infinitely diverse and active process of evolution of the Cosmos, planetary system, and Earth. The essence of social evolution is the gradual, consistent development of society from simple to complex, differentiated, from traditional to rational, from unenlightened to enlightened, from a society with manual technology to a society with machine technology, etc. Thus, from the point of view of the concept of social evolution, the transition from one stage of the historical development of human society to another occurs as a result of a long process of accumulation of quantitative changes.

Along with the concept of social evolutionism, the theory of the revolutionary transformation of society, the founders of which were K. Marx and F. Engels, was quite widespread. In accordance with the Marxist concept, the transition from one socio-economic formation, understood as a stage of development of society, to another is carried out as a result of social resolution. A social revolution is a radical revolution in the entire system of social life, a leap, the result of which is the transition of society from one qualitative state to another. Considering the development of society as a natural historical process, K. Marx attached great importance to revolutions, calling them “the locomotives of history.” It is social revolutions, according to K. Marx, that remove obstacles to the path of social development and serve as an incentive to accelerate social progress.

It should be noted that both supporters of the evolutionary theory of social development and supporters of the revolutionary theory are based on the idea of social progress, according to which the main trend in the development of society is the movement from simple to complex, from lower to higher. The regression that may take place in the development of individual countries and regions, in their opinion, is not of a global nature.

While recognizing the very fact of social progress, researchers of society differ in its criteria. Thus, for O. Comte, the criterion of social progress is the development of knowledge, for G. Spencer - the complication of the social organization of society, the transition from homogeneity to heterogeneity, differentiation and integration. In Marxism, the criterion for the development of society is the growth of productive forces, which requires changes in production relations. In modern sociology (D. Bell, L. Aron, W. Rostow), the level and nature of production and consumption are taken as a criterion for the progress of society.

Along with evolutionist and revolutionary theories of social development, based on the idea of progress, there are theories that deny the possibility of progressive development. One of them is the concept of cultural-historical types, formed in contrast to the linear, Eurocentric model of social development, according to which all historical development is carried out within the framework of a single civilization and represents a unidirectional, unilinear process of transition from lower to higher levels. From the point of view of its authors (N. Danilevsky, A. Toynbee, O. Spengler, P. Sorokin), it is impossible to talk about civilization in general, since, for example, it is impossible to explain the development of the East, Russia and many other regions from the point of view of the Eurocentric concept of social development . In the theory of cultural-historical types, the historical process is considered as a multilinear development of unique socio-cultural types of societies. At the same time, the emphasis is on their originality, and the idea of isolation and locality of some cultures and civilizations is put forward.

In modern sociology, the ideas of globalism have become quite widespread. From the perspective of globalism, modern humanity is viewed not as a simple sum of more or less isolated countries and peoples, but as a single whole, as a fundamentally new social supersystem, all the structural elements of which are in close, steadily deepening interconnection and interdependence. Globalization is caused by the increasing integration of economic, political, cultural relations and processes and results not only in the emergence of the so-called global problems of our time, but also in the fact that such a level of unity of humanity is achieved in which the existence and successful development of each country, each people is in direct depending on the state and changes of the world as a whole.

Social life

Economic sphere

Political life

Spiritual sphere of life

Fashion and agrarian society

Culture

Literacy leads to the centralization and accumulation of knowledge and culture. Although there is rivalry and disagreement between the learned class and the clergy.

Conclusion

Thus, we can highlight the characteristic features of an agrarian society:

dominance of agricultural production;
little or no production development;
weak social differentiation;
predominance of the rural population.

In the modern world there are no longer examples of such a structure of society, although it is possible to cite as an example the various Aboriginal tribes that live in Australia and Africa.

Agricultural Economics is part of economic theory. It studies the use of scarce resources in food production, processing, marketing and consumption.

In agriculture, as in other sectors, the basic laws of economic development apply. Moreover, many laws of a market economy appear in the agricultural economy in a purer form than in other sectors, since agriculture is represented by numerous and relatively small farms operating relatively autonomously from each other. Therefore, textbooks on economic theory are often illustrated with examples of agricultural production.

However, agricultural economics is usually included in a special course, and an independent economic theory is developed for the agricultural sector. Why is this being done, why, say, is there no course in the economics of the coal industry or construction? The reason for this is a number of specific features of the agricultural sector that require its separate consideration. Let's look at the most significant of them.

First of all, agriculture in developed countries is a classic example of a perfectly competitive industry, since agricultural production is carried out by a large number of sellers, each of which does not have enough supply to influence prices, the product is practically not diversified, and in addition, there are practically no barriers to entry and exit from the market.

The second feature is the strong dependence of agricultural production on natural conditions. Droughts, floods, pests, animal and plant diseases make the agricultural sector a relatively risky investment area.

Another feature is that due to poor product differentiation, sellers have little opportunity to increase prices. Price parity for agricultural products and agricultural inputs changes from year to year around the world not in favor of the agricultural sector.

The final product of agricultural production and the food sector is food. But the price elasticity of demand for food is generally low. Consumers purchase basic types of food, regardless of increases or decreases in prices, in virtually unchanged volumes. On the other hand, the demand for agricultural and food products is also income inelastic.

The low elasticity of demand for agricultural products gives rise to the so-called long-term farm problem. Low elasticity of demand in itself is not yet a problem for the economic sector if supply does not grow or grows slowly. But the fact is that over the last century the agricultural sector has experienced significant scientific and technological progress, the productivity of agricultural labor has increased sharply and the supply of agricultural products has begun to grow rapidly. And with the growth of real incomes, the demand of each individual family for the agricultural and food sector is reduced. But as prosperity increases, the birth rate usually decreases, which means a decrease in population growth rates. As a result, the aggregate demand for agricultural products in society grows more slowly than its supply.

Thus, with the development of the economy and scientific and technological progress, agriculture finds itself “sandwiched” between two trends. On the one hand, with supply growth, the total revenue of the sector tends to decrease. On the other hand, prices for purchased goods are higher than prices for farm products. The resulting trend is a relative decline in farm incomes. Over the long term, farm incomes always lag behind those in non-farm sectors of the economy. Since agriculture is a highly competitive industry, it would seem that, due to the laws of the market, in parallel with the fall in income, there should be an outflow of farmers from this industry to more profitable areas of activity. However, in practice this does not happen. Resource immobility in agriculture exacerbates long-term farming problems. The peculiarity of a rural resident and rural worker is expressed in his special attachment to the principles of life and work and determines the special social conservatism of this part of the population.

The price inelasticity of demand for agricultural products, coupled with the high dependence of agricultural production on natural factors and competition among producers, gives rise to a short-term farming problem: prices on the agricultural market are extremely unstable. The slightest fluctuations in supply volumes depending on a thousand reasons beyond the farmer’s control (high or low harvest, etc.) - and the price falls or rises at an inadequate speed.

Another difference between the agricultural sector and other sectors of the economy is that the most common form of agricultural enterprise is a peasant farm, a family farm. For this enterprise, the purpose of operation is the well-being of the family, which is not limited to income from agricultural production. Therefore, the initial position of the theory of the company that an entrepreneur always strives to maximize his profit is not applicable to the agricultural sector in its pure form.

In addition to the above-mentioned features of the agricultural economy, it should be noted that this sector is also characterized by a special attitude of society towards it. Protectionism as an economic policy of protecting domestic producers is, of course, inherent not only in agriculture. However, it is in the food sector that it is most widespread and powerful. Along with general arguments in favor of protectionism (anti-dumping, protection of an emerging industry, unemployment, etc.), specific arguments are also used in the agricultural sector. First of all, this is the desire for food security of the nation, which is often understood as autarky, and the desire to preserve the traditional appearance of the countryside, the so-called rural landscape.

The traditional rural landscape with its national characteristics is undoubtedly the national cultural heritage of each country. With the decline in the agricultural population, there is a threat of its loss. This problem is especially relevant for Western European countries, which have long tried to solve this problem by economically supporting their own farmers. The special relevance of agricultural protectionism is evidenced by the fact that throughout post-war history the problem of its elimination occupies the most important place among the problems of international trade. This issue was central to the development of the Treaty of Rome, which began the European Economic Union. This issue occupies a central place in the final documents of the Uruguay Round of GATT.

Thus, the specificity of economic relations in the agricultural sector is quite strong, which necessitates a special theoretical course in agricultural economics.