Master of Chemical Production

To favorites

Lead Electronics Engineer

To favorites

NBK Group

Process engineer for feed production

To favorites

To favorites

· 18,000 rub. Sverdlovsk region:
· Pervouralsk

job vacancy: relevant

Design engineer (mechanical, construction)

JSC "Russian Chrome 1915"

A large chemical enterprise, JSC Russian Chrome 1915, is looking for a design engineer (mechanical, construction) in the design department.

· from 25,000 rubles. Sverdlovsk region:
· Pervouralsk

job vacancy: relevant

Required process engineer for pet food production.

· 30,000 - 50,000 rubles. Sverdlovsk region:
· Pervouralsk

job vacancy: relevant

Recruitment agency "Work for you"

A manufacturing plant in Pervouralsk is looking to hire a leading electronics engineer.

· Salary by interview Sverdlovsk region:
· Pervouralsk

job vacancy: relevant

JSC "Russian Chrome 1915"

Shift technicians required for a large chemical enterprise

Minimum 1 year experience as a foreman. -Education: secondary / higher chemical (chemical engineer-technologist

Drucker P. identifies seven sources of innovative ideas:

§ unexpected event for an organization or industry - unexpected success, unexpected failure, unexpected external event

§ incongruence - a discrepancy between reality (as it actually is) and our ideas about it (as it should be)

§ innovations based on the needs of the process (by the need of the process one should mean those of its shortcomings and weaknesses that can and should be eliminated)

§ sudden changes in industry or market structure

§ demographic changes

§ changes in perceptions, moods and values

§ new knowledge (both scientific and non-scientific).

According to Drucker P., the systematic innovation process consists of a targeted and organized search for changes and a systematic analysis of these changes as a source of social and economic innovation. He classifies the first 4 sources of innovative ideas (areas of change) as internal, since they are located within the organization, within an industry or service sector (such sources are available to those working in a given organization or in a given industry). The last three sources are external because they have their origins outside the given organization or industry. However, there are no clear boundaries between all sources, and they can overlap each other.

When choosing an innovative idea and making a decision to introduce any innovation, you need to find out some points:

§ if we are talking about product innovation - does this or that product have a good chance in the market?

§ if we are talking about any innovative project - obtaining a real profit (the profit from the project should be significantly higher than the costs of its implementation) and assessing the real risk (the risk associated with the project should be in the maximum acceptable ratio with the profit from its implementation).

Thus, in order to achieve the intended goals and receive monopoly excess profits from innovative activities, the organization must comply with certain conditions and meet certain requirements:

§ it is necessary to clearly understand the volume of demand of potential consumers for innovation, its economically expressed advantages over existing methods of satisfying this need

§ it is necessary to identify resource limitations that arise during the creation, production and marketing of innovations, i.e. it is important to correctly draw up a comprehensive forecast of the economic potential of an innovation

§ for the successful development of an innovative organization, a prerequisite is that the organization’s personnel meet certain requirements

§ with limited material and financial resources and market uncertainty, the quality of organization and management plays a significant role in the success of innovative organizations.

In connection with the above, it is small innovative organizations that are most effective, since they are characterized by the absence of strictly formalized management structures, which ensures speed and flexibility in decision making.

Innovation process

The formation of a plan, preparation and gradual implementation of innovative changes is called the innovation process. The innovation process is a broader concept than innovation activity. It can be viewed from different perspectives and with varying degrees of detail:

· firstly, it can be considered as a parallel-sequential implementation of research, scientific and technical, production activities and innovations;

· secondly, it can be considered as temporary stages of the life cycle of an innovation from the emergence of an idea to its development and implementation.

In general, the innovation process is a sequential chain of events during which an innovation is implemented from an idea to a specific product, technology or service and spreads into business practice. Moreover, the innovation process does not end with the so-called implementation, i.e. the first appearance on the market of a new product, service or bringing a new technology to its design capacity. The process is not interrupted, because As it spreads throughout the economy, an innovation is improved, made more efficient, and acquires new consumer properties, which opens up new areas of application, new markets, and therefore new consumers.

An important direction in the study of innovation processes is the identification of real factors that promote or hinder their implementation.

Table: Factors influencing the development of innovation processes

Group of factors	Factors hindering innovation activities	Factors promoting innovation
Economic, technological	·lack of funds to finance innovative projects ·weak material and scientific-technical base and outdated technology, lack of reserve capacity ·dominance of interests of current production	·availability of a reserve of financial, material and technical resources, advanced technologies ·availability of the necessary economic, scientific and technical infrastructure ·material incentives for innovative activities
Political, legal	· restrictions from antimonopoly, tax, depreciation, patent and licensing legislation	·legislative measures (especially benefits) that encourage innovation ·government support for innovation
Organizational and managerial	· established organizational structure, excessive centralization, authoritarian management style, predominance of vertical information flows · departmental isolation, difficulty of intersectoral and inter-organizational interactions · rigidity in planning · focus on established markets · focus on short-term payback · difficulty in coordinating the interests of participants in innovation processes	· flexibility of the organizational structure, democratic management style, predominance of horizontal information flows, self-planning, allowance for adjustments · decentralization, autonomy, formation of target problem groups
Socio-psychological, cultural	· resistance to changes that can cause such consequences as a change in status, the need to look for a new job, restructuring of established ways of activity, violation of behavioral stereotypes, established traditions · fear of uncertainty, fear of punishment for failure · resistance to everything new that comes from the outside	·moral encouragement, public recognition ·providing opportunities for self-realization, liberation of creative work ·normal psychological climate in the work team

The innovation creation process includes (innovation life cycle):

1. Research stage

§ fundamental research and development of a theoretical approach to solving a problem (fundamental research is theoretical or experimental activity aimed at obtaining new knowledge about the basic patterns and properties of social and natural phenomena, about cause-and-effect relationships in relation to their specific application. There are theoretical and exploratory Fundamental research includes research - the task of which is new discoveries, the creation of new theories and the substantiation of new concepts and ideas. Exploratory research includes fundamental research - the task of which is the discovery of new principles for creating products and technologies, new, previously unknown properties of materials. and their connections, methods of analysis and synthesis. In exploratory research, the purpose of the intended work is usually known, the theoretical foundations are more or less clear, but the directions are not specified. In the course of such research, theoretical proposals and ideas are confirmed, rejected or revised. The positive output of fundamental research in world science is 5%.);

§ applied research and experimental models (applied/original research is aimed, first of all, at achieving a specific goal or task, at identifying ways of practical application of previously discovered phenomena and processes; applied research work aims to solve a technical problem, clarify unclear theoretical questions, obtaining specific scientific results that will later be used in experimental developments);

§ experimental development, determination of technical parameters, product design, manufacturing, testing, fine-tuning (product development is the final stage of scientific research, characterized by the transition from laboratory conditions and experimental production to industrial production. The purpose of product development is the creation/modernization of samples of new equipment that can be transferred after appropriate tests to mass production or directly to the consumer. At this stage, the results of theoretical research are finalized, appropriate technical documentation is developed, a technical prototype or an experimental technological process is manufactured and tested. A technical prototype is a real working sample of a product, system or process. demonstrating suitability and compliance of performance characteristics with specifications and manufacturing requirements);

2. Production stage

§ primary development and preparation of production (at this stage, a description of possible production methods is made, indicating the main materials and technological processes, conditions of operational and environmental safety. The stage of determining industrial applicability and preparation for production is the period during which the product must be prepared for release The result is a prototype - a full-scale working model, designed and created to determine the requirements for the production of a new product. The prototype fully complies with the industrial design standards of the final product, mastered in mass production. Data from technical analysis and collection of information are the basis of the feasibility study. , containing a detailed assessment of the costs of creating and operating the production complex and the profit from selling the product on the market at competitive prices);

§ launch and management of mastered production (full-scale production is the period during which a new product is mastered in industrial production and the production process is optimized in accordance with market requirements);

3. Consumption stage

§ supply of products to the market and its consumption (at this stage, the strategy for promoting a new product to the market is specified, the direct consumption of new knowledge embodied in the new product occurs. At the same time, the actual effectiveness of innovation activity is revealed.);

§ obsolescence of the product and the necessary liquidation of obsolete production (this stage occurs when there is not only physical, but primarily obsolescence of equipment caused by the rapid pace of development of new highly efficient models).

In relation to innovation, as the process of transferring innovation into the field of application, the content of the life cycle is somewhat different and includes the following stages:

1. the birth of an innovation- awareness of the need and the possibility of change, search and development of innovations;

2. mastering the innovation- implementation on site, experiment, implementation of production changes;

3. diffusion of innovation- dissemination, replication and repeated repetition at other objects (the dissemination of an innovation is an information process, the form and speed of which depend on the power of communication channels, the characteristics of the perception of information by business entities, their ability to practically use this information, etc. According to Schumpeter’s theory . innovation diffusion is the process of a cumulative increase in the number of imitators/followers who introduce an innovation after the innovator in anticipation of higher profits);

4. routinization of innovation- innovation is implemented in stable, constantly functioning elements of the relevant objects.

Thus, both life cycles are interconnected, interdependent and impossible without the other. Both life cycles are covered by the general concept of the innovation process, and the main difference between them is that in one case the process of forming a new product occurs, in the other - the process of its commercialization.

Figure: New Product Life Cycle

P O T O K		The need for theoretical research	The need for developments in the development of applied research	The need of the economy for the development of new equipment, technology and consumer goods
SCIENTIFICAL SCIENTIFICATIONS		Basic Research	Applied Research	Experimental developments	Diffusion of innovations into production and consumption
I D E Y		Discoveries	Inventions	Scientific and technical achievements/developments	Innovation

Figure: Innovation process

First stage Second phase Third stage Fourth stage Fifth stage Sixth stage

Organization of the innovation process

Conditions for the emergence of innovations are constantly being formed in society, but for many reasons they often go unnoticed. Most people - business managers, businessmen, financiers - do not notice or remain indifferent to various “symptoms” of impending changes in industry, trade, consumer interests, etc. Discovering innovative opportunities, understanding their significance and timely implementation ensure success in economic activity.

Conditions for the emergence of innovations are constantly being formed in society, but for many reasons they often go unnoticed. Most people - business managers, businessmen, financiers - do not notice or remain indifferent to various “symptoms” of impending changes in industry, trade, consumer interests, etc.

Discovering innovative opportunities, understanding their significance and timely implementation ensure success in economic activity.

The famous management specialist Peter Drucker highlighted seven main sources of innovation:

1. Unexpected event (success, failure, event in the external environment).
2. A discrepancy or discrepancy between reality and its reflection in our opinions and assessments.
3. Needs of the production process.
4. A change in industry and market structure that “took everyone by surprise.”
5. Demographic changes.
6. Changes in consumer perception and sentiment.
7. New knowledge (scientific and non-scientific).

It should be noted that this classification is very conditional. Thus, unexpected success, which is isolated as an independent factor, can be considered in other classes (for example, as new knowledge). All of these innovation opportunities are interconnected and overlapping.

Although these sources of innovation are only symptoms, they should nevertheless be considered reliable indicators of impending changes, which managers and specialists must notice in a timely manner.

1. Unexpected event

The richest opportunities for effective innovation come from unexpected success (Table 1). At the same time, innovative opportunities are associated with a lower risk of obtaining a negative result, and the implementation of innovations is less labor-intensive.

Table 1. Use of drugs intended for humans to treat animals

Unexpected success	Veterinarians have discovered that drugs for humans are great for treating animals.
Actions of leading pharmaceutical companies (Switzerland)	The current situation is assessed as an obstacle to basic activities. Firms refused to fulfill orders from veterinarians
Actions of companies supplying medicines to veterinarians	Cheaply purchased licenses from leading companies for the production of new veterinary drugs and organized their production
Result	The production of veterinary drugs has become the most profitable sector of the pharmaceutical industry. But the profits were not made by the companies that first developed the drugs.

Unexpected success must be noticed, and it must be reflected in the information that the manager receives.

Unlike unexpected success failure rarely goes unnoticed, but it is perceived even less frequently as a symptom of new opportunities. Most failures are the result of mistakes, incompetence in planning or execution. If a project is carefully prepared and conscientiously executed, but turns out to be unsuccessful, you should find out why this happened: perhaps the premises of the project did not correspond to reality.

It should be borne in mind that favorable innovation opportunities are not created by any unexpected events, but only by those that make it possible to use the knowledge and experience available in the company in a slightly different environment. This is not about diversification, but about expanding its field of activity.

2. Discrepancy between what is and what should be

Discrepancies between reality and perception typically do not appear in reports provided to managers. This phenomenon is more qualitative than quantitative, and can be expressed in the following situations.

• Inconsistency between economic indicators. An increase in demand for products and an increase in production volumes should also correspond to an increase in profits. The discrepancy between the dynamics of these indicators across the industry or its large sector indicates a crisis situation. An innovator who notices this discrepancy and finds a new solution to the problem can expect a long period of success. As a rule, large enterprises do not quickly realize that they have a new and serious competitor.
• Discrepancy between reality and the idea of ​​it. This discrepancy occurs when industry leaders rely on faulty assumptions and misunderstand the real situation. Efforts are concentrated in areas where positive results do not exist.
• Discrepancy between the buyer's values ​​and managers' perceptions of them. Leaders think they know everything, but in reality something else is happening - this is a widespread phenomenon in the world, often due to the manifestation of intellectual arrogance. Japanese radio industrialists at one time were sure that the poor could not afford such a luxury as a television.

3. Production process needs

In production activities, situations often arise when technological process bottlenecks hinder business development. In this case, there is a need to replace a weak link or rebuild an existing process in accordance with the new level of knowledge.

In the 80s XIX century There was a weak link in photography - heavy glass photographic plates. Focusing on this bottleneck of the process and accumulating knowledge accordingly allowed George Eastman, the founder of Kodak, to replace these plates with cellulose film and design a lightweight camera for it. Ten years later, Eastman Kodak became the world leader in photography.

Needs for improvement of production processes may arise due to demographic constraints that do not allow for increased demand for services at the existing level of the process.

4. Changes in industry and market structures

Crisis situations that arise from time to time in industry or market structures also provide opportunities for innovation. The following indicators of future changes are known:

• Rapid growth of the industry. If the output of an industry is growing faster than the population or the economy as a whole, then the structure of the industry must change. The latest change will occur when output doubles. Nevertheless, the existing activity still brings an effect, and therefore no one is inclined to give it up. When production volume doubles, industry enterprises, as a rule, cease to understand the needs of the buyer and effectively serve the market.
• The rapprochement (convergence) of technologies. The combination of several technologies into one causes major changes in the structure of production. For example, the revolutionary microwave oven does more than just cook: you can use it to access the Internet to check your bank account, watch TV, or send an email to friends.
• The industry is maturing for its major structural transformation. When the nature of production operations changes, the conditions are created for structural changes in the industry. When a crisis situation occurs, businesses must act urgently: sticking to the same strategy is dangerous. Innovations that take advantage of changes in industry and market structures are especially effective when the market is dominated by one or a few companies producing goods and services. They are accustomed to many years of success and are infected with arrogance and therefore neglect the innovations of firms entering the industry. When newcomers redistribute the market, large corporations and firms cannot quickly and effectively mobilize forces to fight.

5. Demographic changes

Demographic changes - the size of the population, its gender and age structure, employment, level of education and income, etc. - greatly influence the volume of demand for goods and services, which opens up new opportunities for innovation.

6. Changes in the perception and mood of the population

Changing moods in society, changing people's attitudes to reality, and creating new values ​​represent serious opportunities for innovation. Methods for analyzing demographic changes are well known, and a qualified statistician can provide the necessary information. The main thing is the correct formulation of the task by the manager.

From the point of view of business development prospects, it is important to know the age distribution of the population, and within it - the largest and fastest growing cohort of people. It is this that will cause a sharp change in the prevailing needs and values ​​in society. Changes in the distribution of groups with certain levels of education, professional qualifications, etc. should also be assessed.

The present tense is characterized mobility of social priorities and public views, which change lifestyles, creating new business opportunities. For example, the concern of part of the population with high consumption of salt, sugar, preservatives, etc. has led to a transformation of food preparation methods, changes in their composition and taste. The increased interest of people in physical perfection contributed to the emergence of the “health industry”: the production of exercise equipment, appropriate clothing and footwear, dietary supplements, the construction of gyms, as well as scientifically based nutrition programs, etc. However, it should be remembered that in this situation it is important to distinguish between genuine changes in people's mood from following fashion.

7. Features of innovations based on new knowledge

Uncertainty is often perceived as a negative characteristic, but in R&D management it is synonymous with high-impact opportunity.

For example, Gillette's expertise has played a leading role in the discovery of "a better way to shave." Gillette's accumulated knowledge of the science of shaving allows it to continually innovate and successfully bring new products to market. Over the past decade, the company entered the market first with the Atra Plus razor, which has a moving head and lubricating strip, then with the Sensor blade, which adapts to the shape of the face. The next step is the launch of the new generation of Mach 3 razors in 70 countries. Each subsequent product was better than the previous one and was more expensive.

The implementation of innovations based on new knowledge is characterized by the greatest expenditure of time compared to other innovative opportunities. In addition, they require a combination of knowledge obtained in different fields, so innovations based on new knowledge require special conditions.

• A thorough analysis of the knowledge itself is necessary to create an innovation., as well as the social, economic and psychological characteristics associated with it. Social and economic analysis is more important than technical analysis. It is important to find out what conditions are not sufficient for the successful implementation of an idea. If all conditions cannot be met, then innovation should be postponed. Managers must be prepared to accept that unpromising projects should be abandoned without regret and that when great opportunities are being sought, a high percentage of unsuccessful projects is normal.
• A clear focus on strategic market dominance is important. A promising innovation immediately attracts competitors, and therefore leadership must be achieved quickly, and the introduction of innovations is aimed at the following goals: a comprehensive system of servicing consumers of the new product; clear market orientation; strategic behavior that allows you to quickly adapt to rapid changes in the market.
• Implementation of knowledge-based innovations(primarily scientific and technical) requires entrepreneurial management, i.e., focusing on specific market requirements and financial foresight: forecasting cash flows and future capital requirements.

According to the research of P. Drucker, innovative activity consists of a targeted and organized search for change, as well as a consistent analysis of the opportunities that these changes bring for economic and social innovations. The most common are seven sources of innovation opportunities: unforeseen, incongruity, pressing need or necessity, changes in industry or market structure, demographics (demographic factors), changes in perception, understanding and mood, new knowledge.

Unforeseen event- it is an unexpected success or failure (failure) in business. Unexpected success not only indicates the possibility of innovation, it suggests its necessity. Such success should not be ignored because it conflicted with the usual order of things, but it is necessary to conduct an analysis and carefully understand what happened and what the consequences might be. An unexpected setback (failure) should also always serve to create new opportunities for finding innovative ways.

A condition for success when using unforeseen events to introduce innovations is their connection with acquired knowledge and accumulated experience.

Inconsistencies- it is the discrepancy between what actually is and what should be (assumed) to be. These are signs of qualitative changes that have already occurred within a market, industry, process, or that can be promoted. They can be divided into the following types:

Inconsistency with the economic realities of the industry;

Inconsistencies between the realities of a particular industry or service sector;

Inconsistency between actually perceived values ​​and consumer expectations;

Internal inconsistencies in the rhythm or logic of the ongoing process.

Sometimes it is impossible to understand why growing demand does not lead to improved economic performance. The innovator must think about how to take advantage of the discrepancy in the economic realities of the industry and what will turn it into an opportunity to achieve what is planned. The discrepancy between economic realities is a call to action.

Discrepancies between the realities of a particular industry or service sector arise when people working in them make erroneous assumptions about realities and reality. There is a discrepancy between reality and the misdirection of their efforts (behavior), which creates the opportunity for successful innovation. The solution must be specific, clearly focused and simple.

Discrepancy between actually perceived values ​​andexpectations consumers. An example of such a discrepancy is unexpected success. The expectations and values ​​of the buyer and the manufacturer are never the same. Behind the most common discrepancy between real and imagined reality there is always an element of intellectual arrogance, rigidity, and dogmatism. It is necessary to find opportunities for clearly focused innovations that will have a good chance of success.

Internal inconsistencies in the rhythm or logic of the process. The inconsistency is usually visible to those working in a given industry or service, an outsider cannot take advantage of this opportunity to innovate in order to produce a product or service to better satisfy the consumer.

Urgent need or need focused on solving certain problems, and not on the situation arising in the external environment. Due to necessity, taking into account new knowledge and the requirements of the time, the existing process is improved and rebuilt, sometimes a missing link is added to it. Process improvement must be conscious, i.e. It should be clear what we need at the moment, whether there is enough knowledge to solve the problem, whether the decision to realize the need corresponds to the values ​​of those who will use it. Therefore, to turn the urgent need into reality, specific program research is necessary, for example, the urgent need for the development of domestic tourism in Russia requires program research to determine the necessary measures and what innovations should be introduced for this.

Changes Vindustry or market structure suggest that the structure of a market or industry sometimes remains unchanged for a long period, but at the same time seems absolutely stable, and begins to be perceived by everyone as a given that will exist forever. However, the structure of a market or industry is a fragile structure: one small push can change the situation so much that it becomes impossible to conduct business as before. An example of such a push is the changes made at the beginning of 2007 to the Law of the Russian Federation “On the Fundamentals of Tourism Activities” regarding the financial responsibility of tour operators, which created a favorable situation for the development of innovative processes in the field of tourism.

Changes in industry structure create good opportunities for innovation that is visible and easily predictable. Very often, outsiders to an industry who are willing to innovate can become an important force for change with little or no risk. Development of information technology in the 1990s. was a prerequisite for changing the structure of the tourism industry. The large holding Cendant, which was involved in real estate, took advantage of this and actively began introducing advanced technologies into the tourism business. The holding's management began to create and buy virtual travel companies, as a result of which the holding took a leading position in the e-commerce market for tourism services.

These four sources of innovation opportunities may be symptoms of changes in the external environment, economy, society or knowledge, but they manifest themselves within the framework of a business activity, industry or market.

Sources of innovation opportunities such as demographics, changes in perception, understanding and mood, and new knowledge are external factors that include changes in the social, philosophical, political and intellectual environment.

Demographic factors - changes in the composition of the population, its size, age structure, employment, level of education and income are clearly pronounced and their consequences are the most predictable. The importance of trends in population dynamics has always been recognized by businessmen, economists and politicians, but changes in birth or death rates, levels of education, the composition of the labor force, or the location and movement of people have been thought to occur over significant periods of time and therefore have little practical impact. implications for daily decision making. However, demographic changes provide innovative opportunities that can produce good results with a high degree of reliability, especially in the field of recreation and tourism. An example of successful use of demographic changes in the tourism business is the company Club Mediterranee.

Changes in perception, understanding and mood arise when a change in perception occurs, but the fact itself does not change, only its meaning changes, for example, the statements: “the glass is half full” or “the glass is half empty.” Unexpected success or failure is often a sign that a change in perception has occurred. Innovation driven by change in perception must start small and be very specific. A critical aspect of such an innovation is the implementation period. There is nothing more dangerous than trying to take advantage of a change in perception hastily. Much of what may appear to be a change of perception turns out to be short-lived fashion.

New knowledge, Knowledge-based innovations differ from all others in their main characteristics: duration, number of failures, unpredictability, as well as the problems that the entrepreneur has to solve. Knowledge-based innovation is the result of a combination of several types of knowledge, and not necessarily only scientific and technological. In most cases, innovation occurs only when all the necessary factors are known, available and already in use somewhere. Therefore, new knowledge is characterized by a long period of implementation. It takes 25...35 years for a real technology for its practical application to emerge on the basis of new knowledge, and for the market to accept it. Many of the elements of what is now called management appeared immediately after the end of the First World War, but individual components of management were developed for a long time: organization, human resource management, etc. It was only after the systematization and optimization of new knowledge in the mid-1950s. management has acquired global significance.

Innovation based on new knowledge brings change. Its purpose is to create a need, and no one can say in advance how the user will perceive it. Other innovations are based on changes that have already occurred and are aimed at meeting existing needs.

Entrepreneurs are distinguished by an innovative type of thinking.

Innovation is a special tool of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship itself as an action is aimed at infusing existing resources with new properties in order to create wealth. Moreover, in the course of innovation, a resource is created. A resource as such does not exist until a person finds something useful in nature and gives it economic value. Until this moment, for example, any plant remains a shoot, something like a weed, and any mineral remains just a rock. A little over a century ago, neither oil seeping from the ground, nor bauxite, nor aluminum ore were considered resources. On the contrary, they were considered a nuisance because they disrupted the fertility of the soil. Molds - penicillium were considered not a resource, but a pest. Bacteriologists have made enormous efforts to find a way to protect their bacterial cultures from contamination by them. This was the case until, in the twenties of this century, microbiologist from London Alexander Fleming, as a result of research, discovered that natural penicillins are formed by many types of mold fungi - penicillium. This discovery allowed him in 1929 to isolate a complex of penicillins - valuable antibiotics. This is how the pest fungus turned into a useful resource.

The same pattern is true in relation to the social and economic spheres. There is no resource in the economy more significant than “purchasing power,” and it is created by an innovative entrepreneur.

The nineteenth-century American farmer had virtually no purchasing power and was therefore unable to purchase farm equipment. At that time, many grain harvesters and other agricultural machines were already being produced, but the farmer simply could not pay for any of them. Given this circumstance, one of the inventors of harvesting machines, Cyrus McCormick, introduced a system for selling these machines in installments. This enabled the farmer to pay the cost of the purchased machine not from his savings, but from future earnings. Thus, the farmer unexpectedly acquired “purchasing power”, which allowed him to buy agricultural equipment.

This suggests that an innovative approach to resources is an effective means of obtaining additional benefits.

The idea of ​​using containers used in road transportation on cargo ships did not contain any purely technical innovations. This innovation, that is, the introduction of shipping containers, did not have a technological basis, but a new vision of the “cargo ship” as a loading and unloading device. The driving force in this endeavor was the desire to maximize the speed of servicing ships in ports. Quite remarkably, this rather simple implementation almost quadrupled the efficiency of ocean freight transport and may even have saved this type of freight transport from ruin. Without this innovation, it is likely that the enormous growth in international trade that has characterized the last forty years would not have occurred. It should be borne in mind that it was international trade that was precisely the area of ​​economic activity that received truly unprecedented development.

Another “non-science-intensive” innovation, the textbook, did much more for the spread of school education than the systematic training of school teachers in pedagogical educational institutions and pedagogical theory itself. (It is believed that the great Czechoslovak educational reformer Jan Amos Komensky invented the school textbook. He is credited with creating the first primer of the Latin language in the mid-seventeenth century.) Without a textbook, even the best teacher would not be able to teach more than 1-2 students at once; with a textbook, even a mediocre teacher can put something into the heads of 30-35 students.

The above examples show that innovations do not necessarily have to be technical or “material”. Few purely technical innovations can match the impact of such social innovations as modern newspapers and insurance. And the system of purchasing goods in installments produced a real economic revolution. Wherever this system is introduced, it transforms the economy of supply into an economy of demand, almost regardless of the efficiency of the economy (this explains the fact that installment purchases are immediately included in the list of prohibitions in any country where a Marxist government comes to power, in Czechoslovakia in 1948, in Cuba in 1959). Hospitals in their modern form are nothing less than a social innovation of the 19th century Enlightenment that did more for health care than many advances in medical science. Management can be considered an innovation of our century - “useful knowledge”, which allows you to combine efforts, “organize” the productive work of people with different levels of knowledge and training. Management has transformed modern society into something completely new, and as yet we have neither a political nor a social theory that could explain this new thing. This new thing is the society of organizations.

In books on economic theory you will find mention of August Borsig as the man who created the first steam locomotives in Germany. Undoubtedly more important, however, were his organizational innovations, which overcame the fierce resistance of the craft guilds, teachers and government bureaucrats and still constitute the system of factory organization and the basis of Germany's industrial power. It was Borsig who came up with the idea of ​​the Master as a highly qualified and respected production worker, managing affairs on the factory floor with a certain degree of autonomy. In addition, Borsig introduced a system of vocational training that combined practical training on the job with mastering the basics of the profession in the classroom. Examples can be given from the more distant past, for example, the development of an approach to the problem of the state from a secular position in Machiavelli's book The Prince (1513) and the foundations of the modern nation-state, made sixty years later by his closest follower Jean Bodin. Both of these related innovations have had a more tangible impact on human civilization than many technological inventions.

A typical example from the point of view of social innovation and its importance in the modern world is Japan.

Beginning around 1867, that is, from the time Japan “opened up” to the modern world, Western states underestimated it, despite the fact that it was able to inflict military defeats on China in 1894 and Russia in 1905. The same trend remained after the events of Pearl Harbor and even after the establishment of Japan as a “superpower” and a fierce competitor in the world market in the seventies and eighties. It is likely that the main reason explaining this situation lies in the dominant belief that innovation must necessarily be associated with material things and based on science and technology. Thus, according to those who hold such beliefs (not only in the West, but also in Japan itself), the Japanese are not innovators, but imitators. This is supported by the argument that, in general, outstanding scientific and technological achievements (innovations) were not initiated in Japan.

When, as a result of the Meiji Revolution, Japan very reluctantly and with great reserve opened its doors to the outside world, it did so to avoid the fate of India and China (19th century), which were conquered, colonized and drawn into the orbit of Western interests (“Westernized”). . The main goal of Japan (here it is appropriate to recall the principles of judo) was to use the achievements of the West to restrain it and preserve the Japanese spirit.

The above supports the idea that social innovations seemed more significant than the introduction of steam locomotives or the telegraph. It was much more difficult to implement social innovations to develop institutions such as schools and universities, government agencies, banks and labor relations. build steam locomotives or introduce telegraph communication. A locomotive that could pull a train from London to Liverpool could equally well move a train from Tokyo to Osaka without any special adaptation. Social institutions had to be quintessentially “Japanese” and at the same time “advanced.” They had to be managed by the Japanese in the Japanese way and at the same time be in the sphere of the “Western”, highly industrialized economy. The technology could be imported at a fairly low cost and with minimal risk to the culture of the importing country. Unlike technology, deep cultural roots are required for its development and prosperity. A hundred years ago, Japan consciously decided to focus attention and resources on social innovation, imitation, import and adaptation of technical innovations. As you know, all this was done with amazing success. Moreover, this policy remains relevant for Japan to this day. As will be discussed in Chapter 17, what is inappropriately called creative imitation is in fact a very solid and often highly effective entrepreneurial strategy.

If Japan now finds it necessary to move beyond imitation, importation and adaptation of technology from other countries and learn to create its own new technical ideas, then creative imitation is still unlikely to be relegated to the background and forgotten. Scientific research in itself is a fairly new “social innovation,” and the Japanese have always demonstrated enormous potential for such innovation in any field. The most important thing is that they managed to comprehend the secrets of entrepreneurial strategies.

We can conclude that innovation is an economic or social concept rather than a technical one. Say’s definition regarding entrepreneurship is quite applicable to this concept. Thus, it turns out that the goal of an innovative solution is to increase the return on invested resources. In the refraction of modern economic thought, innovation is defined as a phenomenon lying in the sphere of demand, not supply, that is, it changes the value and utility extracted by the consumer from resources.

It appears that the advantage of using either of these definitions depends on the specific case rather than on the theoretical model. Shift from full-cycle plants to so-called “mini-mills” that use scrap metal instead of iron ore and produce a defined end product (e.g. round bars, wire rods, etc., rather than just steel that still needs processing) , is best viewed and analyzed from a supply-side economics perspective. With this technical solution, the end product, end use cases and consumers remain the same as in the first case, and costs are significantly reduced. It is quite conceivable that the use of containers in maritime freight transport can also be interpreted from a supply-side economics perspective. As for the introduction of audio or video cassettes, which is the same, if not more “technical” innovation, it is best described or analyzed from the perspective of consumer values ​​and satisfaction (utility). The same can be said of such social innovations as the publication of Time, Life, and Fortune magazines, initiated by Henry Luce in the twenties, or the creation of the money market fund in the seventies and early eighties of our century.

We cannot yet propose a theory of innovation. But we already know quite a lot about when, where and how to systematically look for innovative opportunities and how to determine their chances in terms of success or failure. We have the necessary knowledge to develop (at least in the most general form) the practice of innovation.

Scholars of the history of technology constantly remind us that one of the greatest achievements of the nineteenth century was the “invention of inventions.” Although this thesis has become a cliché, it remains true. Until about 1880, invention was looked upon as something mysterious; in nineteenth-century books we find the definition of invention as a “spark of God” or “illumination of genius.” The inventor himself was seen as a half-romantic, half-ridiculous figure, doing God knows what all alone in his attic. It was only by 1914, i.e., by the beginning of the First World War, that invention began to be looked at as research - a systematized, purposeful activity, planned and organized with a high degree of predictability of intended and probable results.

It is very likely that innovative activity in its development can go through similar milestones. The challenge for entrepreneurs is to learn how to implement innovative solutions on a systematic basis.

Successful entrepreneurs will not wait for a “gust of inspiration” to strike them with a “brilliant idea” - they will simply roll up their sleeves and get to work. These entrepreneurs are not looking for the “great discovery,” the innovation that could “disrupt an industry,” create a “multi-billion-dollar business,” or help them “get rich overnight.” Entrepreneurs who start a business with the goal of expanding it as much as possible and as quickly as possible are doomed to failure. They are guided by wrong principles. An innovation that initially seems promising in terms of its practical application may turn out to be a completely unrealizable result of technical virtuosity. At the same time, innovations that are very modest in their intellectual content (for example, the opening of the McDonald's restaurant chain) can result in a gigantic, highly profitable business. These observations remain true for innovation in non-commercial and non-productive areas.

Successful entrepreneurs, whatever their personal motivation - money, power, curiosity or the desire to become famous - strive to create utility and make appropriate investments. Of course, these entrepreneurs are looking far ahead. They are not satisfied with merely improving or modifying what already exists. They attempt to create new and different values ​​and utilities, to transform “material” into “resources,” or to put existing resources into new and more productive forms.

Changes pave the way to everything new and previously unknown. Thus, the systematic innovation process consists of a purposeful and organized search for change and a systematic analysis of the potential of these changes as a source of social and economic innovation.

As a rule, such changes include those that have already occurred or are about to occur. The vast majority of successful innovations are built on the use of change. Of course, there are innovations that, by their essence, represent major changes. In this regard, we should first of all mention some technical innovations, for example the development of a new aircraft model by Wright Brothers. Such cases, however, are considered exceptions, and very rare ones at that. Most successful innovations are much more prosaic and rely on change. Thus, we can conclude that the discipline of innovation (which is also the knowledge base of entrepreneurship) is a diagnostic discipline or, in other words, a systematic study of those areas of change that most likely harbor entrepreneurial opportunities.

More specifically, we can identify seven areas of change analysis, that is, seven sources of innovative ideas.

The first four sources can be classified as internal; they are located within the enterprise (production or non-production), within an industry or service sector. Such sources are visible to people working in a given enterprise or industry. In essence they are symptoms. At the same time, they serve as highly reliable indicators of changes that have either occurred or can be carried out with very little effort. These sources include:

1) unexpected event(for an enterprise or industry) - unexpected success, unexpected failure, unexpected external event;
2) incongruence- discrepancy between reality as it actually is and our ideas about it (“as it should be”);
3) innovations based on process needs;
4) sudden changes in industry or market structure;

The following three sources of innovation can rightly be called external, since they have their origin outside a given enterprise or industry:
5) demographic changes;
6) changes in perceptions, moods and values X;
7) new knowledge (both scientific and non-scientific).

The lines between these seven sources of innovative ideas are blurred; Moreover, these sources often overlap each other. They can be compared to seven windows, each located on different sides of the same building. Some details of the landscape are viewed equally from all windows, but the view opening in the center of each of them is specific and individual.

Due to the fact that each of these sources has its own characteristics, they should be analyzed separately. There is no need to prove that all these sources are important and effective in their own way. Major innovations can result from both the analysis of symptoms of change (for example, unexpected success resulting from changes in product or pricing that were considered minor) and the application of new knowledge as a consequence of a scientific breakthrough.

At the same time, the proposed order of discussion of these sources is far from accidental. As you will notice, these sources are ranked in order of decreasing reliability and predictability. Contrary to the almost universal belief that new knowledge, and especially scientific knowledge, is the most reliable and predictable source of successful innovation, it actually is not. Despite all its clarity and importance, for all its brilliance and attractiveness, this source is the least reliable and predictable. At the same time, serious analysis of symptoms of change such as unexpected success or windfalls can lead to effective innovative solutions. That is why innovations, the source of which were unexpected events, are characterized, as a rule, by the shortest period from the moment the solution begins to materialize until the receipt of measurable results, positive or negative.

Competitive advantage is always associated with the implementation of certain changes that affect all members of the organization. Moreover, changes, to one degree or another, are always associated with innovation.
The term “innovation” first appeared in the scientific research of cultural scientists back in the 19th century and literally meant the introduction of some elements of one culture into another.
Only at the beginning of the 20th century did the patterns of technical innovations begin to be studied. In 1911, the Austrian economist J. Schumpeter, in his work “The Theory of Economic Development,” identified two aspects of economic life:
· static (routine circulation is associated with constant repetition and resumption of production - the organizations participating in it know the principles of their behavior from their experience, it is easy for them to foresee the results of their actions and it is easy to make decisions, because the situation is clear);
· dynamic (innovation circulation means development - a special, distinguishable in practice and in the minds of people, a state that acts on them as an external force and does not occur in the situation of economic circulation).
Innovations in the economy are introduced, as a rule, not after the consumer spontaneously has new needs and a reorientation of production occurs, but when production itself accustoms the consumer to new needs.
To produce means to combine the resources available to an organization, and to produce something new means to create new combinations of changes in the development of production and the market. Schumpeter J. identified five typical changes:
1. changes due to the use of new technology, new technological processes and new market support for production;
2. changes due to the use of products with new properties;
3. changes due to the use of new raw materials;
4. changes in the organization of production and methods of its material and technical support;
5. changes due to the emergence of new markets.
In the 30s of the 20th century, J. Schumpeter first used the concept of “innovation,” meaning by this changes with the aim of introducing and using new types of consumer goods, new production means, markets and forms of organization in industry. At the same time, J. Schumpeter assigned the main role of the driving force of economic development of society not to the nature of the struggle between capital and the proletariat (according to K. Marx), but to the introduction of innovations into the state economy.
The research also revealed that the source of profit can be not only price changes and savings on current costs, but also a radical update and change of products. The ability to ensure the competitiveness of an organization by changing prices or reducing costs is always short-term and of a marginal nature. The innovative approach turns out to be more preferable, since the process of searching, accumulating and transforming scientific knowledge into physical reality is essentially limitless.

Sources of innovative ideas

Drucker P. identifies seven sources of innovative ideas:
1. an unexpected event for an organization or industry - unexpected success, unexpected failure, unexpected external event
2. incongruence - a discrepancy between reality (as it actually is) and our ideas about it (as it should be)
3. innovations based on the needs of the process (by the needs of the process one should mean those of its shortcomings and weaknesses that can and should be eliminated)
4. sudden changes in industry or market structure
5. demographic changes
6. changes in perceptions, moods and values
7. new knowledge (both scientific and non-scientific).
According to Drucker P., the systematic innovation process consists of a targeted and organized search for changes and a systematic analysis of these changes as a source of social and economic innovation. He classifies the first 4 sources of innovative ideas (areas of change) as internal, since they are located within the organization, within an industry or service sector (such sources are available to those working in a given organization or in a given industry). The last three sources are external because they have their origins outside the given organization or industry. However, there are no clear boundaries between all sources, and they can overlap each other.
When choosing an innovative idea and making a decision to introduce any innovation, you need to find out some points:
§ if we are talking about product innovation - does this or that product have a good chance in the market?
§ if we are talking about any innovative project - obtaining a real profit (the profit from the project should be significantly higher than the costs of its implementation) and assessing the real risk (the risk associated with the project should be in the maximum acceptable ratio with the profit from its implementation).
Thus, in order to achieve the intended goals and receive monopoly excess profits from innovative activities, the organization must comply with certain conditions and meet certain requirements:
§ it is necessary to clearly understand the volume of demand of potential consumers for innovation, its economically expressed advantages over existing methods of satisfying this need
§ it is necessary to identify resource limitations that arise during the creation, production and marketing of innovations, i.e. it is important to correctly draw up a comprehensive forecast of the economic potential of an innovation
§ for the successful development of an innovative organization, a prerequisite is that the organization’s personnel meet certain requirements
§ with limited material and financial resources and market uncertainty, the quality of organization and management plays a significant role in the success of innovative organizations.
In connection with the above, it is small innovative organizations that are most effective, since they are characterized by the absence of strictly formalized management structures, which ensures speed and flexibility in decision making.

Innovation process

The formation of a plan, preparation and gradual implementation of innovative changes is called the innovation process. The innovation process is a broader concept than innovation activity. It can be viewed from different perspectives and with varying degrees of detail:
· firstly, it can be considered as a parallel-sequential implementation of research, scientific and technical, production activities and innovations;
· secondly, it can be considered as temporary stages of the life cycle of an innovation from the emergence of an idea to its development and implementation.
In general, the innovation process is a sequential chain of events during which an innovation is implemented from an idea to a specific product, technology or service and spreads into business practice. Moreover, the innovation process does not end with the so-called implementation, i.e. the first appearance on the market of a new product, service or bringing a new technology to its design capacity. The process is not interrupted, because As it spreads throughout the economy, an innovation is improved, made more efficient, and acquires new consumer properties, which opens up new areas of application, new markets, and therefore new consumers.
An important direction in the study of innovation processes is the identification of real factors that promote or hinder their implementation.

Table: Factors influencing the development of innovation processes

Group of factors Factors that hinder innovation activities Factors that promote innovation activities
Economic, technological · lack of funds to finance innovative projects · weakness of the material and scientific-technical base and outdated technology, lack of reserve capacity · dominance of the interests of current production · presence of a reserve of financial, material and technical resources, advanced technologies · availability of the necessary economic and scientific- technical infrastructure · financial incentives for innovative activities
Political, legal · restrictions from antimonopoly, tax, depreciation, patent and licensing legislation · legislative measures (especially benefits) encouraging innovation · government support for innovation
Organizational and managerial · established organizational structure, excessive centralization, authoritarian management style, predominance of vertical information flows · departmental isolation, difficulty of intersectoral and inter-organizational interactions · rigidity in planning · focus on established markets · focus on short-term payback · difficulty in coordinating the interests of participants in innovation processes · flexibility organizational structures, democratic management style, predominance of horizontal information flows, self-planning, allowing for adjustments, decentralization, autonomy, formation of target problem groups
Socio-psychological, cultural · resistance to changes that can cause such consequences as a change in status, the need to look for a new job, restructuring of established ways of activity, violation of behavioral stereotypes, established traditions · fear of uncertainty, fear of punishment for failure · resistance to everything new that comes from the outside · moral encouragement, public recognition · providing opportunities for self-realization, liberation of creative work · normal psychological climate in the work team

The content of the innovation process covers the stages of creation, both innovation and innovation.
The innovation creation process includes (innovation life cycle):
1. Research stage
§ fundamental research and development of a theoretical approach to solving a problem (fundamental research is theoretical or experimental activity aimed at obtaining new knowledge about the basic patterns and properties of social and natural phenomena, about cause-and-effect relationships in relation to their specific application. There are theoretical and exploratory Fundamental research includes research - the task of which is new discoveries, the creation of new theories and the substantiation of new concepts and ideas. Exploratory research includes fundamental research - the task of which is the discovery of new principles for creating products and technologies, new, previously unknown properties of materials. and their connections, methods of analysis and synthesis. In exploratory research, the purpose of the intended work is usually known, the theoretical foundations are more or less clear, but the directions are not specified. In the course of such research, theoretical proposals and ideas are confirmed, rejected or revised. The positive output of fundamental research in world science is 5%.);
§ applied research and experimental models (applied/original research is aimed, first of all, at achieving a specific goal or task, at identifying ways of practical application of previously discovered phenomena and processes; applied research work aims to solve a technical problem, clarify unclear theoretical questions, obtaining specific scientific results that will later be used in experimental developments);
§ experimental development, determination of technical parameters, product design, manufacturing, testing, fine-tuning (product development is the final stage of scientific research, characterized by the transition from laboratory conditions and experimental production to industrial production. The purpose of product development is the creation/modernization of samples of new equipment that can be transferred after appropriate tests to mass production or directly to the consumer. At this stage, the results of theoretical research are finalized, appropriate technical documentation is developed, a technical prototype or an experimental technological process is manufactured and tested. A technical prototype is a real working sample of a product, system or process. demonstrating suitability and compliance of performance characteristics with specifications and manufacturing requirements);
2. Production stage
§ primary development and preparation of production (at this stage, a description of possible production methods is made, indicating the main materials and technological processes, conditions of operational and environmental safety. The stage of determining industrial applicability and preparation for production is the period during which the product must be prepared for release The result is a prototype - a full-scale working model, designed and created to determine the requirements for the production of a new product. The prototype fully complies with the industrial design standards of the final product, mastered in mass production. Data from technical analysis and collection of information are the basis of the feasibility study. , containing a detailed assessment of the costs of creating and operating the production complex and the profit from selling the product on the market at competitive prices);
§ launch and management of mastered production (full-scale production is the period during which a new product is mastered in industrial production and the production process is optimized in accordance with market requirements);
3. Consumption stage
§ supply of products to the market and its consumption (at this stage, the strategy for promoting a new product to the market is specified, the direct consumption of new knowledge embodied in the new product occurs. At the same time, the actual effectiveness of innovation activity is revealed.);
§ obsolescence of the product and the necessary liquidation of obsolete production (this stage occurs when there is not only physical, but primarily obsolescence of equipment caused by the rapid pace of development of new highly efficient models).
In relation to innovation, as the process of transferring innovation into the field of application, the content of the life cycle is somewhat different and includes the following stages:
1. the origin of innovation - awareness of the need and the possibility of change, search and development of innovations;
2. mastering an innovation - implementation at a facility, experiment, implementation of production changes;
3. diffusion of innovation - dissemination, replication and repeated repetition on other objects (diffusion of innovation is an information process, the form and speed of which depend on the power of communication channels, the characteristics of the perception of information by business entities, their ability to practically use this information, etc. According to J. Schumpeter's theory, diffusion of innovation is the process of a cumulative increase in the number of imitators/followers introducing an innovation after the innovator in anticipation of higher profits);
4. routinization of innovation - innovation is implemented in stable, constantly functioning elements of the corresponding objects.
Innovation, as a process, cannot be considered completely completed if it stops at one of these stages. In turn, the life cycle of an innovation may end at the consumption stage if it does not close with the innovation.
Thus, both life cycles are interconnected, interdependent and impossible without the other. Both life cycles are covered by the general concept of the innovation process, and the main difference between them is that in one case the process of forming a new product occurs, in the other - the process of its commercialization.

Figure: New Product Life Cycle

FLOW The need for theoretical research The need for development in the development of applied research The need of the economy for the development of new equipment, technology and consumer goods
SCIENTIFIC Basic research Applied research Experimental development Diffusion of innovations into production and consumption
IDEAS Discoveries Inventions Scientific and technical achievements/developments Innovation

Figure: Innovation process

Idea generation Checking technical feasibility Creation of a prototype Comprehensive testing and improvement of technical characteristics Market sounding Organization of large-scale production Market expansion
Market needs analysis Large-scale marketing
First stage Second stage Third stage Fourth stage Fifth stage Sixth stage
Organization of the innovation process
Let's look at the process of implementing innovation from a financial point of view.

Figure: Dynamics of costs and profits during implementation
innovation project (according to Mikkelson H.)

Profit W

Gross income

Net income

Profit

Ongoing costs associated
with production and
sales of products

Obviously, the early stages of this process are obviously expensive, and costs increase sharply as the innovation approaches the market (time t1). The segment t0-t1 corresponds to the first four stages of the innovation process. With the onset of the fifth stage, the organization begins to receive income from sales, which further grows with the expansion of the scale of production and sales (curve W on the segment t1-t3). Naturally, this happens only with the successful development of the innovation process. Curve V on the same segment characterizes the receipt of net income, starting from time t1. It is formed by subtracting from gross income W current costs Q associated with the production and sale of marketable products. From a certain point in time t2>t1, net income compensates for the costs in the early stages of the innovation process and the organization begins to receive net profit (curve P on the segment t2-t3).
Net profit grows as long as the new product is competitive and in demand among customers.
However, life shows that in a market economy this happy period for entrepreneurs does not last long. Following in the footsteps of the pioneering organization are many others, also seeking to establish themselves in a new market niche. Some of them acquire a license to use the innovation legally. Others act by pirate methods, using technology developed by the first organization or releasing a new product without complying with all legal requirements. Still others generally discredit innovations by organizing the underground production of low-quality and cheaper analogues under the brand name of the development organization. Finally, the fourth - the most serious competitors in the market - independently improve the consumer or technological characteristics of an innovation, achieve significant results along the way, find loopholes in patent legislation and gradually fill new spaces in the market niche with their products.