Basic provisions for assessing land plots: The term "land" is generally used when referring to undeveloped property. The term “land plot” means a part of the territory on which some work (improvement) has been carried out that allows the use of this plot according to its intended purpose.

The following improvements are highlighted carried out to create the site: external: construction of streets, sidewalks, drainage and utility networks; internal: planning, landscaping, paving, installation of outlets for connecting utility networks, communication lines, etc.

The Land Code of the Russian Federation contains the following definition of a land plot: “A land plot is a part of the land surface that has a fixed boundary, area, location, legal status and other characteristics reflected in the State Land Cadastre and documents of state registration of land rights. The legal status of the land plot includes: intended purpose, permitted use, form of legal ownership. A land plot can be divisible and indivisible. Indivisible a land plot is recognized that, according to its intended purpose and permitted use, cannot be divided into independent land plots.”

Land valuation does not only apply to vacant, undeveloped land. A typical property consists of land and buildings, and there is a need to determine the value of the land separately from the improvements available on it. The main element of land relations is land ownership.

When assessing a land plot, it is necessary to take into account the set of rights associated with it. Common rights requiring assessment: full ownership - the ability to use a tenant-free plot in any legal way; lease right - the possibility of owning a land plot under a lease agreement. In accordance with the Law of the Russian Federation “On Payment for Land,” the use of land in our state is paid. Board forms it names: land tax, rent, standard price of land (for the purchase and redemption of land plots).

In Russia, most land is not sold, but leased, so appraisers often determine not the value of a land plot, but the value of its lease rights. Valuation of lease rights is used when determining the sale price of the right to lease a land plot, when determining the value of the object of which the leased land plot is a part, and when assessing damage from termination of the lease agreement.

Mass and individual land property valuations: Mass valuation models are focused on reproducing the market for one or more land use options over a wide geographic area. Carrying out a mass assessment requires significant personnel; development of a standard methodology that can unify the procedure for assessing a large number of properties on a specific date; the use of statistical methods, both in the assessment process and to check the quality of the assessment performed. Mass valuation is ideal for tax purposes. The assessment of individual property objects on a specific date is carried out, as a rule, by a small number of personnel, the decision is made by one specialist. The quality of the work performed is determined by comparison with actual sales of similar objects.

Analysis of the best and most efficient use of land. Increasing the efficiency of urban land use.

Concept of highest and best use(NNEI) - the probable and legally permitted use of the object of assessment with the best return, and the indispensable conditions for such use are: physical possibility, proper support and financial justification for such actions.

The analysis of NEI is intended to identify the best and most efficient use, firstly, of the site as undeveloped (if the site is already built up, then the assumption should be made that there are no buildings and the site is free or can be freed by demolishing existing buildings and structures), secondly, with existing improvements.

Analysis criteria: Physical possibility - the physical possibility of the best and most effective use of the object of assessment. Admissibility from the point of view of legislation - the nature of the intended use does not contradict the legislation limiting the actions of the owner (user) of the object. Financial feasibility - a legally acceptable procedure for using an object must provide net income to the owner of the property. Maximum productivity - in addition to obtaining net income as such, the best and optimal use implies either maximizing the net income of the owner or achieving the maximum value of the object itself. Location potential - accessibility of the site (access to it), inconveniences of the location of the land plot, hidden dangers of the location. Market demand - the extent to which the planned use of a land plot is of interest in a given market and in a given area. The level of supply and demand for all real estate objects of various functional purposes is analyzed. The advantages of real estate, ensuring its competitiveness and disadvantages are analyzed.

Improving the efficiency of urban land use:

Urban lands represent a special category. Their value is influenced by the size of the city and its production and economic potential, the level of development of engineering and social infrastructure, regional natural, environmental and other factors. The same factors can have opposite effects on the value of a particular site: heavy traffic is undesirable for a residential area, but increases the value of the site for trade purposes; location relative to educational institutions and shopping centers, aesthetic advantages and amenities taken into account when assessing land for housing construction have virtually no effect on the value of areas oriented towards industrial development; Transport infrastructure and economic zoning are important to them.

In order for land property to be used more efficiently, that is, to generate maximum income from use and contribute to improving the overall investment climate, further development of market relations in the land market, orientation to the current market situation and market requirements are necessary. It is necessary to implement the processes of taxation, lease and purchase of urban land based on its market value. At the same time, a fair distribution of the tax burden is achieved, stimulation of efficient use and activation of investments in reconstruction and development in the process of restructuring the territory.

Approaches and methods for land assessment.

The normative method is to determine the normative price of land. It is used when transferring, purchasing land into ownership, establishing common joint (shared) ownership in excess of the free norm, transferring by inheritance or donation, obtaining a secured loan, withdrawal for state or public needs. Urban land is assessed taking into account the density of buildings, the prestige of the area, the nature of the surrounding land use, environmental condition, engineering and transport facilities, etc. In market conditions, if the necessary information is available, it is advisable to use methods based on the analysis of market data.

The sales comparison method is the simplest and most effective valuation method and can be used to evaluate both actually vacant and supposedly vacant land; allows you to determine the specific price of a land plot by making percentage adjustments to the sales prices of analogues. In the absence of information on the prices of transactions with land plots, it is allowed to use supply (demand) prices. The method gives fairly accurate results only in a developed information-open competitive market. The Russian land market does not meet these requirements; the value of a land plot cannot be determined based on information about sales transactions of analogue plots. The method of capitalization of land rent is based on the fact that if there is sufficient information about the rental rates of land plots, it is possible to determine the value of these plots as the current value of future income in the form of rent for the land plot being assessed. The initial data for capitalization is obtained from a comparison of sales of leased land and rental values. Based on the rental rate received, the market value of the site is determined using the income approach, usually using the direct capitalization method. The formula for calculating the cost of a land plot is:

Where VL is the cost of a land plot, IL is the income from owning land, RL is the capitalization rate for land. The capitalization rate is determined by dividing the value of ground rent for similar land plots by their sale price or by increasing the risk-free rate of return on capital by the amount of the risk premium associated with investing capital in the land plot being valued.

Distribution method (method of ratio, correlation) - determination of the component value of a land plot based on a known ratio of the value of land and improvements in the property complex. The allocation (extraction) method is used to evaluate developed land plots if there is information on transaction prices for similar real estate objects. The method involves the following sequence of actions: defining elements for comparing objects; determining the differences between each analogue and the object of evaluation; calculation and making adjustments for each of the comparison elements; calculation of the market value of a single property, including the land plot being assessed, by means of a reasonable generalization of the adjusted prices of analogues; calculation of the replacement cost or cost of reproduction of improvements to the assessed land plot; calculating the market value of the assessed land plot by subtracting from the market value of a single real estate object, including the assessed land plot, the cost of replacement or the cost of reproducing improvements to the land plot. The selection method is applied, when the contribution of improvements to the total price of the plot is small, it is recommended for evaluating suburban plots (for which the contribution of improvements is small and quite easily determined), and is used in the absence of data on sales of land in the surrounding area. The method is the most effective in conditions of a passive market (there is no data on the sale of vacant land plots), taking into account the characteristics of the initial information and the model for obtaining the desired value. The cost of a land plot in general is determined by the formula: , where Cz is the cost of the land plot, C is the cost of the object, Su is the cost of improvements.

The remainder method is based on the investment group technique for physical components. The method is used to evaluate built-up and undeveloped plots, if it is possible to develop the assessed land plot with income-generating improvements. The value of land is determined by capitalizing the portion of income attributable to the land. Main stages of the residual method for land: Determines the net operating income of the entire property based on market rent and estimated operating expenses; the net operating income attributable to the structure (building) is determined; The net operating income attributable to the land plot is capitalized into the value indicator through the capitalization rate for the land.

The subdivision method (development approach) is used in assessing land suitable for subdivision into individual plots. Consists of the following stages: determining the size and number of individual plots; calculating the value of developed plots using the comparable sales comparison method; calculation of costs and development schedule for the expected period of sale and reasonable business profit; deducting all development costs and business profits from the estimated total sale price of the sites to determine the net proceeds from the sale of real estate after completion of development and sale of individual sites; choosing a discount rate that reflects the risk associated with the period of expected development and sale.

Cost-effective approach is based on the assumption that a reasonable investor would not pay a price for the land being assessed that is greater than what it would cost to acquire the land in question and construct improvements on it that are identical or similar in purpose and quality. That is, the sum of the costs of creating identical or similar improvements is an acceptable guide in determining the value of the land being assessed using the cost approach.

Income approach is based on the idea that the value of the land being assessed depends on the amount of income that can be derived by the owner from the fact of owning this land. When applying this approach, the ability of the assessed land to generate a certain income is analyzed, which is usually expressed in the form of income from its operation and income from subsequent (possible) sale. Determining the value of the assessed land using the income approach is based on determining the current value of future net income from owning this land (taking into account the time factor).

Comparative approach is based on the principle of substitution, the essence of which is that a rational investor (buyer) will not pay for the valued land an amount greater than what it would cost to purchase a similar object on the market with the same utility. That is, prices paid in the market for similar or comparable plots of land must reflect the market value of the land being valued.

System of taxes and fees in the field of real estate. Concepts and general provisions on real estate taxation.

The main grouping of taxes and fees in the real estate market is formed according to the most practically significant subjective attribute, reflecting subject-object property relations - the relationship of people (individuals) and economic units (enterprises, organizations) to real estate items, i.e. by categories of taxpayers, who own, use and dispose of various real estate objects: 1. Taxes calculated and levied on individuals. persons At the same time, individuals who pay taxes and (or) fees in the real estate sector include: relevant tax residents; physical persons who are not tax residents of the Russian Federation, but receive income from sources (real estate) located in the Russian Federation. 2. Corporate taxes – legal. persons formed in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation, as well as foreign firms (companies) with civil legal capacity and created in accordance with the laws of foreign states, international organizations, their branches and representative offices established on the territory of the Russian Federation.

The Tax Code of the Russian Federation identifies 3 type of taxes and fees: federal - established by the Tax Code and mandatory for payment throughout the Russian Federation; regional - established in accordance with the Tax Code, put into effect by the laws of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and collected only on the territory of the relevant constituent entities; local - are introduced in accordance with the Tax Code, regulatory legal acts of representative bodies of local self-government and operate on the territory of the relevant municipalities.

In organizational terms, according to the objects of taxation, all taxes and fees in the field of real estate can be divided into two interrelated, but with specific features, varieties: taxes on real estate as embodied investment capital in the form of property used to satisfy personal needs or conduct business, periodically paid during the entire period that the property is owned by individuals, as well as in the possession and use of legal entities; taxes and fees paid when making purchase and sale transactions with real estate, donation, inheritance, leasing or leasing, mortgages, etc.

Based on the physical nature of real estate and their functional and intended purpose, the following types of taxes and fees are distinguished: land tax; forest tax; tax on subsoil use; tax on the reproduction of the mineral resource base; tax on water and air vehicles subject to state registration and equated to real estate.

Real estate taxation is based on the following principles: Universality - every person must pay taxes and fees established by law; Fairness and differentiation - the level of tax rates should take into account the actual capabilities of the taxpayer based on the value of his real estate; Mandatory - any state cannot exist without taxes, then their payment is inevitable; Equality - everyone is equal before taxes. Taxes and fees cannot be discriminatory and applied differently based on political, ideological, ethnic, religious and other similar differences between taxpayers. Differentiation of tax rates and fees, as well as benefits, depending on the form of ownership, citizenship of individuals and place of origin of capital is unacceptable.

For tax purposes, the identification of interdependent legal entities and individuals, the relationships between which may influence the conditions or economic results of their activities or the activities of the persons they represent, is also important. Organizations and (or) individuals are included in the composition of interdependent persons if: one organization directly and (or) indirectly participates in another organization in the amount of more than 20%; one individual is subordinate to another individual due to his official position; persons are, in accordance with the family legislation of the Russian Federation, married, in relationships of kinship or affinity, of an adoptive parent and an adopted child, as well as a trustee and a ward.

Enterprise life cycle model and organizational development. Factors influencing the development of the enterprise.

Leon Danko's Organizational Life Cycle Model represents a classic version of the life cycle of any organization. The horizontal axis represents the time or age of the organization: young - mature; along the vertical axis - change in the size of the organization. The size of an organization can be understood as various parameters (for example, changes in annual turnover, book value of assets, or the number of employees in the enterprise) or consider these criteria in combination. The transition from one stage to another can be carried out gradually or quite abruptly and painfully, accompanied by crises. At the same time, the types of organizational structures and cultures are changing. To effectively manage an organization, management must understand what stages the organization goes through in its development and what types of crises accompany this development.

Larry Greiner's Organizational Life Cycle Model. According to Greiner, five key factors are of greatest importance for building a model of organizational development: the age of the organization, the size of the organization, stages of evolution, stages of revolution, and industry growth rates. According to this model, the life cycle of an organization consists of five stages (phases) of evolution and revolution along the life path of the organization, called “stages of growth.” Each stage begins with a period of development, followed by steady growth and stability, and ends with a revolutionary period of organizational change. Each stage is simultaneously a consequence of the previous one and the cause of the subsequent stage. Each evolutionary period is characterized by a dominant management style used to maintain growth, while each revolutionary period is characterized by a dominant management problem that must be resolved before growth can continue. The transition to a new stage of the life cycle determines new rules by which the organization must carry out internal functioning and maintain relationships with the environment. The important takeaway at each stage is that if the organization is committed to continued growth, then the next steps of its management are determined in detail. The higher the growth rate of the industry in which the organization operates, the faster it moves from one stage to another. Stages of Organizational Growth and their corresponding crises: growth through creativity (creative phase of growth) - crisis of leadership; growth through directive leadership (directed growth) - crisis of autonomy; growth through delegation - crisis of control; growth through coordination - crisis of prohibitions; growth through cooperation - a crisis of psychological fatigue or trust.

Developing Greiner's ideas, Adizes suggested that the same thing happens to organizations as to living organisms - they are born, grow, grow old and die. According to his model, in the process of life of an organization, ten natural sequential stages of the life cycle can be distinguished, which, with a sufficient degree of convention, can be grouped into two large stages: the growth stage and the aging stage. Stages: Stage one. Nursing. There is no company yet, but there is an idea. Stage two. Infancy. At this stage, the company does not yet have a clear structure and system of distribution of powers and responsibilities; the founder, perhaps, works more than anyone else. Stage three. Childhood(“come on, come on”) The company is doing well, and it begins to work more and more productively, overcoming the first obstacles. Stage four. Youth. The company changes a lot at this stage. Even if everything was fine at the previous stages, there comes a moment when without order, system and discipline, further development is impossible. The founder of the company has a need to change the structure of the company and delegate authority. Stage five. Heyday. In the flourishing stage, an organization is both flexible and manageable. It has a relatively clear structure, prescribed functions, reward and punishment systems. Employees are the main asset in the company; they enjoy working in such conditions, they are talented and modest, and they make excellent team players. Stage six. Stabilization(Late Bloomer). At this stage, form begins to prevail over content. This is the first stage of the aging of an organization, when the company gradually moves away from the policy of rapid development, capturing new markets and expanding its presence in existing ones. Stage seven. Aristocratism. The company owns significant financial resources, which are spent on developing its own activities and strengthening the existing control system. Stage eight. Early bureaucratization. At this stage, the integration function fades: the organization gradually plunges into a number of complex and sometimes insoluble structural conflicts, which are resolved by dismissing employees, but without changing the structure itself. Stage nine. Late bureaucratization. The company is completely focused on itself and on internal problems. Stage ten. Death. The death of a customer-centric enterprise occurs immediately after customers stop using the enterprise's services en masse.

The main stages of the life cycle of an organization in accordance with the approach of B. Z. Milner: Entrepreneurship stage. The organization is in its formation stage, the product life cycle is being formed. Goals are still unclear, the creative process flows freely, and progress to the next stage requires a stable supply of resources. Collectivity stage. The innovative processes of the previous stage are developed, and the mission of the organization is formed. Communication and structure within the organization remain essentially informal. Members of the organization spend a lot of time developing mechanical contacts and demonstrate high levels of commitment. Stage of formalization and management. The structure of the organization is stabilized, rules are introduced, and procedures are defined. The emphasis is on innovation efficiency and sustainability. Decision-making and decision-making bodies become the leading components of the organization. The role of the top management of the organization is increasing, the decision-making process is becoming more balanced and conservative. The roles are clarified in such a way that the departure of certain members of the organization does not pose a serious threat. Structure development stage. The organization increases product output and expands the service market. Leaders identify new development opportunities. The organizational structure becomes more complex and mature. The decision-making mechanism is decentralized. Decline stage. As a result of competition and a shrinking market, an organization is faced with a decrease in demand for its products or services. Leaders are looking for ways to hold onto markets and seize new opportunities. The need for workers, especially the most valuable specialties, is increasing. The number of conflicts is often increasing. New people are coming to management to try to stem the downward trend. The mechanism for developing and making decisions is centralized.

The results of the work of enterprises, their structural divisions and business organizations depend on a number of factors of an economic, organizational, technical and technological nature. Factors can be of the first, second, third, ... nth order.

By the nature of the factors: intensive and extensive. Towards extensive These include factors that are associated with changes in quantitative, rather than qualitative, characteristics of the functioning of an enterprise. An example is an increase in the volume of production due to an increase in the number of workers. Extensive factors include factors that reflect the volume of production resources (for example, changes in the number of employees, the cost of fixed assets), their use over time (changes in the length of the working day, equipment shift ratio, etc.), as well as non-productive use of resources (costs of materials for scrap , losses due to waste). Extensive factors are associated with the expansion of the material and technical base of enterprises, additional attraction of material (commodity) and labor resources, development of economic potential . Intensive factors characterize the quality side of the production process. An example would be an increase in production volume by increasing the level of labor productivity. Intensive factors include factors that reflect the efficiency of resource use or contribute to this (for example, improving the skills of workers, equipment productivity, the introduction of advanced technologies). Intensive factors are associated with the most effective use of scientific and technological progress and advanced technology. They ensure economic development by increasing the productivity of social labor, improving the use of material (commodity), labor, and financial resources. Intensive factors are understood as a reflection of the degree of effort of the enterprise and employees to improve the activities of the enterprise, which are reflected in the system of various performance indicators, not only in content, but also in terms of measurements. Measurements of intensive factors can be absolute values ​​in value and physical terms, relative values ​​expressed in coefficients, percentages, etc. In particular, labor productivity can be expressed in cost or quantity of production per worker per unit of time; level of profitability - in percentage or coefficients, etc.

The concept of “crisis”, classification of crises.

Crisis- a revolution, a time of transition, a turning point, a state in which existing means of achieving goals become inadequate, resulting in unpredictable situations and problems. The main function of the crisis- destruction of those elements that are least stable and viable and most disrupt the organization of the whole. There is a simplification of the system and an increase in its harmony. In the economy, the crisis destroys many of the weakest and least expediently organized enterprises, discarding outdated methods of production and forms of organization of enterprises in favor of more modern ones . The cause of the crisis there may be social relations in all types of their manifestation.

Economic crises reflect acute contradictions in the country’s economy or the economic state of an individual enterprise or firm. These are crises in the production and sale of goods, relationships between economic agents, crises of non-payments, loss of competitive advantages, bankruptcy, etc. In the group of economic crises, we can separately highlight financial crises. They characterize contradictions in the state of the financial system or the financial capabilities of the company. These are crises in the monetary expression of economic processes. Social crises arise when contradictions aggravate or clash of interests of various social groups or entities: workers and employers, trade unions and entrepreneurs, workers of various professions, personnel and managers, etc. Social crises are often a continuation and addition of economic crises, although they can arise on their own , for example, regarding management style, dissatisfaction with working conditions, attitude towards environmental problems, and patriotic feelings. A special position in the group of social crises occupies political crisis– a crisis in the political structure of society, a crisis of power, a crisis in the realization of the interests of various social groups, classes, in the management of society. Political crises, as a rule, affect all aspects of the development of society and turn into economic crises. Organizational crises manifest themselves as crises of division and integration of activities, distribution of functions, regulation of the activities of individual units, as separation of administrative units, regions, branches or subsidiaries. Psychological crises are also not uncommon in modern conditions of socio-economic development. These are crises of a person’s psychological state. They manifest themselves in the form of stress, which becomes widespread, in the emergence of feelings of uncertainty, panic, fear for the future, dissatisfaction with work, legal protection and social status. These are crises in the socio-psychological climate of a society, team or individual group. Technological crisis arises as a crisis of new technological ideas in conditions of a clearly expressed need for new technologies. This may be a crisis of technological incompatibility of products or a crisis of rejection of new technological solutions. In a more generalized sense, such crises may look like crises of scientific and technological progress - an aggravation of contradictions between its trends, possibilities, and consequences. For example, the idea of ​​the peaceful use of atomic energy, the construction of nuclear power plants and ships, is currently experiencing a clear crisis.

Based on the immediate causes of their occurrence, crises are divided into natural, social, and environmental. The first ones called natural conditions of human life and activity. The causes of such crises include earthquakes, hurricanes, fires, climate change, and floods. All this cannot but affect the economy, human psychology, social and political processes. At a certain scale, such natural phenomena give rise to crises.

In modern conditions, understanding and recognizing crises in the relationship between man and nature is of great importance - environmental. These are crises that arise when natural conditions change caused by human activity - resource depletion, environmental pollution, the emergence of dangerous technologies, neglect of the requirements of the laws of natural balance.

According to the scale of the problem: microeconomic– cover a specific group of issues or problems; macroeconomic– cover individual industries or areas as a whole.

By frequency of occurrence: periodic crises - repeat regularly and, as a rule, are characterized by a similar course; they are predictable and therefore can be prepared for; intermediate crises are less acute and lasting, often interrupted at some stage. By degree of predictability: predictable - often occur as a stage of development, predictable and caused by objective reasons: the need to restructure production, changing the structure of interests under the influence of scientific and technological progress; unpredictable (unexpected, random) - the result of miscalculations in management, errors in forecasting. According to the degree of openness of the flow: obvious – easily detected and proceed noticeably; “pitfalls” are unlikely; latent (hidden) - the most dangerous, since in their initial stages they are practically invisible and appear already when large contradictions are identified. By depth of processes: mild – such crises proceed quite mildly; short-lived, easily predictable and manageable; deep – they are protracted and have a difficult course; often cause the destruction of various structures of the socio-economic system and can lead to larger and more dangerous forms of crisis.

The entire set of crises is divided into long-term and short-term. The time factor plays an important role in crisis situations. Protracted crises, as a rule, are painful and difficult. They are often the result of inability to manage crisis situations, a lack of understanding of the essence and nature of the crisis, its causes and possible consequences.

The concept of “bankruptcy” and its types. Bankruptcy in developed countries.

Bankruptcy(financial collapse, ruin) is the documented inability of a business entity to pay its debt obligations and finance current core activities. Types: The first type is business bankruptcy associated with ineffective enterprise management, inept marketing strategy, irrational use of resources, etc.; the second type is the bankruptcy of the owner, caused by the lack of investment in working capital for simple reproduction (even if there is demand for products on the market) and in the development of production to maintain the market value of the enterprise; the third type is bankruptcy of production, when, under the influence of the first two factors, uncompetitive products are produced and diversification of this production is required.

In legislative and financial practice, the following are also distinguished: types of enterprise bankruptcy: Real bankruptcy - characterizes the complete inability of the enterprise to restore its financial stability and solvency in the coming period due to real losses of capital used. Technical bankruptcy. The term used characterizes the state of insolvency of an enterprise caused by a significant delay in its receivables. At the same time, the amount of accounts receivable exceeds the amount of the enterprise's accounts payable, and the amount of its assets significantly exceeds the amount of its financial liabilities. Intentional bankruptcy characterizes the deliberate creation (or increase) of the enterprise’s manager or owner of its insolvency; causing economic damage to the enterprise for personal interests or in the interests of other persons; deliberately incompetent financial management. Identified facts of deliberate bankruptcy are prosecuted criminally. Fictitious bankruptcy is characterized by a deliberately false announcement by an enterprise of its insolvency in order to mislead creditors in order to obtain from them a deferment (installment plan) for fulfilling their loan obligations or a discount on the amount of loan debt.

Tasks solved through bankruptcy laws in countries with market economies: maximum use of existing opportunities to “rescue” the enterprise or its parts, which can be restored through bankruptcy proceedings in order to subsequently contribute to the country’s economy. At the same time the state supports asset protection the debtor enterprise in the interests of creditors and the distribution of these assets in accordance with the Law in order to maximally satisfy the creditors' claims. The law determines the procedure for repaying debts to creditors through the distribution of proceeds from the sale of assets and/or in the form of shares of a reorganized operating enterprise, or the use of deferment or reduction of the enterprise's debt if it is possible to restore its solvency (settlement agreement). And finally, the mechanism for reviewing cases of violations and abuses in the management of bankrupt enterprises and the annulment of unlawful transactions is provided by law.

In accordance with the applied concept of bankruptcy, procedures that implement the above-described tasks ensure the interests of both debtors and creditors. The debtor or his business may be released from debts incurred as a result of unprofitable business practices, as well as from continuing to implement the previous management strategy. Creditors are interested in establishing responsible control or monitoring of the debtor's affairs, in reducing its losses and, if the debtor's business can be saved, in maintaining a business relationship with the debtor in the future.

As the practice of most countries with developed market economies shows (USA, Canada, UK, Australia, Sweden, the Netherlands, etc.), one of the key elements of the modern economic insolvency system is the presence of a special government body (department) with specific responsibilities on bankruptcy issues. The Swedish bankruptcy authority is in a single system with the tax service and judicial enforcement authorities and is under the joint competence of the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Justice. This body, which has branches in all provinces of the country, monitors and regulates the implementation of insolvency procedures.

5 / 5 (votes: 2 )

Currently, large cities are experiencing a situation that requires the determination of a market-reasonable level of land value, on which mass land valuations are based. To do this, it is necessary to maintain an economically fair balance of interests of all: owners, users of land plots and the municipality, as well as requirements for the rational use of the city territory. Practical tasks facing the city include both the fiscal function (filling the city budget) and the regulatory function.

Diverse tasks are associated with determining different types of values ​​of land plots according to various tasks (for example, for the purpose of determining urban planning or land cadastral valuation) or making appropriate adjustments to a certain “base” value according to the specifics of a particular task. From the experience of foreign countries it is clear that the basis of the methodology for fiscal calculations is the mass valuation of land. It includes the market value of housing, rental income of commercial development and the cost method for properties with weak liquidity.

At the moment, this problem is being solved in the country through the methodology for calculating the cadastral value of land and settlements, which was prepared by Roszemkadastr based on the methodology adopted at the federal level. But there is one more, in our opinion, significant flaw. Based on data on sales of developed plots of land, the cadastral value of land is calculated using the “extraction” method; in the Valuation Standards, which are mandatory for use by subjects of valuation activities, it is called the “allocation method”.

This method requires knowledge of the area of ​​the land plot or data on the land share coefficient (the ratio of the area of ​​land that falls on 1 sq.m. of the total area of ​​the apartment for sale). The technical instructions of this method state that this indicator must be determined on the basis of a table or according to the schedule of the year of construction of the area - (SNiPs in force at that time), which regulated the density of buildings and the number of storeys of residential buildings.

Today, mass economic assessment of city land objects is carried out using a technique that was previously technically impossible to apply, because it required a large number of calculations and multidimensional classifications. Such techniques are characterized by cluster and correlation-regression analysis, methods of paired comparisons and prioritization, a systematic approach and the formation of databases.

By applying these methods, it is possible to increase the scientific validity of management decisions and qualitatively analyze the work of this approach. For example, calculating the cost of land based on data on apartment sales can be done using two approaches (methods):

1. Calculation based on all sales data to a “standard” apartment for a given segment and only then calculation of the cost of land using the allocation method. The advantage of this method is the simplification of the upcoming calculations (for only one apartment), but the disadvantages include the high probability of error in choosing a reference apartment using paired comparison methods, bringing the apartment to the reference and, therefore, the possibility of large inaccuracy of the results.
2. Determining the cost of land in a certain area for each of the apartments being sold. Here the calculations are more complicated (for the entire data set), but the percentage of accuracy increases.

For example, in a certain residential area there are six buildings of different heights and public facilities.

According to the schedule, the need for territory for travel, sidewalks, parking lots, playgrounds and landscaping is calculated, which falls on 1 resident, taking into account the average number of floors in the block of 7.3: and it is equal to 4.2 + 11.1 = 15.3 m2 / person . It turns out that for a population of 1,370 people in the quarter, 20,961 m2 of territory for housing is needed, and the actual area is 12,055 m2. Moreover, the area allocated for retail facilities is 10 times larger, based on SNiP standards, and gives the city authorities a reason to think about placing such facilities in this quarter.

It is necessary to start calculating the cadastral value of 1 sq.m. land in a residential area. The average price of 1 sq.m. of an apartment for sale at the beginning of 2005 was determined by 19 thousand rubles, while the average price of 1 sq.m. apartments in new buildings is equal to the amount of 9333.38 rubles excluding VAT. Therefore, taking into account the average wear and tear of buildings in the quarter at 15%, we allocate the price of 1 sq.m. apartments falling on the ground, it is equal to 9639 rubles. Using the land share coefficient, we calculate the market value of 1 sq.m. living space in the block, it is equal to 24,714 rubles/sq.m.

Foreign experience shows that the cadastral value of land falls from 50 to 70% of the market value; it turns out that it is determined at about 24,714-0.6 = 15,000 rubles. Taking into account the amount of rent for the year from 3 to 7% of the cadastral value of the land, in this case it will be equal to 15,000-5% = 750 rubles / sq.m of land.

This is a very low amount for a retail facility (it is equal to a tenth of the cost of renting premises for retail purposes in a given area), and it can bring a significant replenishment to the city budget, since it is almost ten times more than the base rental value for land use.

When compared with another quarter of the city with one residential four-story building and several non-residential real estate objects, according to the schedule, the required area of ​​land for the purpose of serving residents in the quarter is 15.6 + 5.8 = 21.4 sq.m/person, or 1819 sq.m. . m. According to calculations, the area of ​​land that falls on a residential building is 7,343.1 sq.m. The ratio of retail premises to residential premises also significantly exceeds SNiP standards.

With similar calculations of the rental price for a plot of land, we find out that it is approximately four times less, which characterizes the inefficient use of land in a residential area. These problems can be solved by increasing the share of residential buildings in a given quarter, because now investing money in housing construction is a very profitable business. In this case, the value of the land share coefficient decreases, the cadastral value of the land increases and, consequently, the rent of the used territory in the quarter increases, which, of course, will bring revenue to the budget of the district and the city.

Therefore, massive land valuation acts as the economic basis for managing urban real estate, which contributes to the reasonable use of urban areas and replenishment of the city and district budgets. If you have any questions regarding the mass valuation of land, you can seek advice from the NP “Federation of Forensic Experts”, where you will receive qualified advice on the issues that have arisen, and you can order mass valuation calculations of land.

If you are interested not only in the topic of land valuation, but in related issues, such as real estate valuation, then we are pleased to inform you that we will be happy to conduct a real estate valuation for you, not only in Moscow and the Moscow region, but also in all regions of the Russian Federation.

Prices

NOTE:

The price of land valuation services is indicated including taxes. Transport costs are paid separately.

In economic terms, land valuation may involve assessing property rights to it. This could be, for example, property or rental.

Selection method

Evaluates land plots on which there are buildings and if there is information about the amounts of transactions with similar plots. This assessment method is performed in a specific sequence:

1. The comparative elements of objects are determined;
2. The differences between each of the similar objects and the one being assessed are identified;
3. An adjustment is calculated for each element;
4. The market value of the entire object is derived based on adjusted data for similar transactions;
5. The cost of improvements is calculated;
6. The cost of the memory is determined.

It is also used when there is no standard activity on the market.

Remainder method

Evaluates areas that can be improved by development and get the maximum profit from it.

The method is carried out according to this plan:

1. The income from the object is determined based on the amount of market rent and planned expenses;
2. The income from buildings is determined;
3. Income from land plots is capitalized into the price according to the norms.

Subdivision method

Used when dividing land into small plots. It is carried out in the following sequence:

1. The number and size of future plots are determined;
2. The price of acquired memory is determined by comparison;
3. Costs are calculated, a development schedule is drawn up, the approximate time of sale is determined, and profits are calculated;
4. Net profit is calculated after the sale of all plots;
5. A discount rate is selected that will reflect the risks during development and sales.

In order to develop land, the following costs are usually taken into account:

• Clearing the territory, planning and dividing into plots;
• Construction of utility networks, roads;
• Salaries for designers and workers, insurance, taxes;
• Advertising and marketing.

Only appraisal companies (legal entities and individuals - individual entrepreneurs) can engage in appraisal activities. The whole procedure is divided into several stages.

• An agreement is concluded To compile it, the appraiser must have the following information:
  • Purpose of the assessment;
  • Evaluation standards;
  • Land category;
  • Type of permitted use;
  • Type of property;
  • The presence of restrictions on the disposal of the object by the owner;
  • Land registry data;
  • Availability of buildings;
  • The date for the assessment is agreed upon.
• The collection and analysis of available information is carried out. This includes:
  • Legal documents and property registration data;
  • Physical characteristics of the memory;
  • Description of buildings and utilities;
  • Description of the location of the storage facility and adjacent facilities;
  • Features of the storage unit related to its location;
  • Economic factors are analyzed.
• A direct inspection of the facility and surrounding area is carried out.
• The necessary information and documentation is requested from the owner of the site and operational services.
• An analysis of the real estate market and the practice of such sales is carried out.
• Determination of the assessment method.
• Coordination of the obtained results.
• Drawing up a report.

Final report

The results are presented in the form of a written report and serve as an evidentiary document for interested parties. The form and content of the report must comply with the requirements of federal law. In practice, a unified report form has not yet been developed, so different appraisal companies can provide reports on the work performed in different forms and different in content. But the information they contain, the form of research and the final conclusions must meet certain requirements:

Availability of information about the cost of the object. Availability of information from which the customer was able to independently:

• Understand its content and method of assessment;
• Check the intermediate and final results of the assessment.
  • The information in the report must be confirmed and justified;
  • The content must comply with the principle of unambiguity and not cause ambiguity in understanding what is written. Specific terms must be defined;
  • Compliance with the principle of verifiability (regarding all calculations given);
  • Interim optional information should not be contained in the report.

When preparing an assessment report, the contractor must:

• Complete and submit the assessment report to the customer in a timely manner;
• Indicate in the report the date of the assessment, assessment standards, purpose of the assessment and other data that does not allow for double interpretation of the assessment results;
• When establishing any value (other than market value) during the assessment process, its criteria are indicated, as well as the reasons for which such an assessment was carried out;
• The report may contain information that, in the opinion of the contractor, is necessary to be included in the report for a more complete application of a particular method;
• Number and stitch the report page by page, sign it with your own hand and certify it with a seal.

Cost

The cost of performing appraisal work depends on the area of ​​the storage facility, its location and the tasks assigned to the contractor.

In different regions of Russia, the cost may differ, but on average, the cost estimate can be minimal from 2 thousand rubles and above. The assessment period usually does not exceed 5 working days.

With the development of the real estate market in Russia, landowners have felt the need to understand the value of the correct assessment of existing real estate.

A cost-based approach to valuation cannot be applied to land, since it cannot be reproduced (if we mean only land without buildings). For self-assessment, you can use income or comparative methods. The income method is somewhat more complicated than the comparative method, so appraisers recommend using this method to initially determine the value of land.

The use of a comparative approach is available to almost every market participant; it can be carried out in several stages:

1. The supply market in the area of ​​interest is being studied. Similar plots put up for sale are selected.
2. For each of the selected plots, the cost per 1 hundred square meters is calculated. The amount received should be reduced by about 5% - this is the estimated discount amount when concluding the transaction.
3. Calculate the average cost per 1 hundred square meters from the results obtained.
4. Having the average cost per 1 sq.m., calculate the cost of your plot.

The main difficulty in this method is the correct selection of similar sentences, and then it’s simple mathematics.

It is worth noting that such an assessment cannot be legally valid for presentation, for example, to a bank when the buyer takes out a mortgage loan. Only an appraisal completed and provided in writing by an appraisal company can be a legal document.

When the need arises for a competent assessment of a storage facility, such indicators as location and ecology are taken into account. The market will show the most likely cost of the plot, since it will simply not be possible to sell it for much more than what is offered in the same real estate sector.

The market value of land depends on the amount of probable profit and the timing of its receipt. It may change over time, so an assessment should be carried out immediately before concluding a transaction. The market value may also change due to changes in the intended purpose.

The valuation of private properties in garden and dacha associations is carried out taking into account the prices of similar objects or undeveloped plots being sold. The cost in these cases strongly depends on the availability and intensity of transport links, on the availability of electricity and gas and, to a large extent, on the environmental condition.

V . Land valuation

For the full participation of land plots in market relations, their adequate assessment is necessary. The high cost of land plots does not arouse the desire to involve them in economic turnover. Undervaluation gives rise to inefficient land use in agriculture and forestry, as well as an irrational model of urban development, for example, the location of industrial zones and environmentally harmful enterprises in the central part of the city.

Land in its various functional purposes - as a natural resource, the basis for the formation of the living environment of the population, a real estate object and the main means of production - is subject to valuation.

Object of assessment is a land plot without real estate objects and its subsoil located on it.

Purpose of land valuation is dictated by the following circumstances:

Determining the value of a land plot is the first stage of the cost method when valuing any property.

To determine the tax base.

For insurance purposes (for land, the subject of insurance may be flooding of the territory, environmental pollution, erosion and decrease in soil fertility).

To justify starting prices during competitive sales, during the corporatization of enterprises, the division of shares, during mortgage lending, when determining the amount of rent.

To justify the best and most efficient use option (BNEI) of any property complex. The criterion for selecting the alternatives under consideration is maximizing the residual value of the land. The potential of a land plot (determined by its location, market conditions, legal opportunities and resource parameters) is the decisive argument when making an investment decision.

Land assessment by breadth of coverage is divided into two types: mass cadastral assessment of land plots and market assessment single land plot.

The purpose of cadastral valuation is the simultaneous determination of the cadastral value of all land plots within the boundaries of administrative-territorial entities (regions, districts, cities, towns, etc.) by assessment zones at the beginning of the next year.

The purpose of market valuation is to determine the market value of a single plot of land on the date of valuation by independent appraisers in accordance with accepted standards and valuation methods.

Agricultural and forest lands are assessed by their productivity, environmental and recreational significance, and location.

Lands of cities and towns are assessed according to their functional purpose, taking into account the density of the development, location features, environmental conditions, social, engineering and transport facilities and other consumer characteristics.

Differences in assessment types cause differences in the assessment procedure. Carrying out a mass assessment requires significant personnel, the development of special techniques that make it possible to unify the process of assessing a large number of heterogeneous objects, and the use of statistical methods. Mass valuation is most suitable for tax purposes.

The assessment of individual property objects is carried out by a small number of appraisers, the decision is made by one appraiser.

Cadastral and market valuation of land is carried out on the basis of the integrated application of three types of methods: income, comparative and cost.

Land valuation methods:

Profitable:

direct capitalization;

capitalization of income by period;

remainder for the land.

Comparative:

• sales comparisons;

  transfer.

Costly:

• determining development costs;

  infrastructure cost estimates.

I. Income methods (or future profitability methods).

Income methods of land valuation are based on taking into account the expected income from land ownership. This approach is applicable to income-generating land plots. The market value of a land plot is the sum of expected future rental income or other benefits given at the valuation date, as well as proceeds from the subsequent resale of the land plot.

The cost of land is calculated using the formula:

Land cost =

Depending on the intended purpose of the land plot as income may act:

Rent (for the valuation of agricultural and forest land);

Part of the income from the property complex attributable to the developed land plot;

Rent (for assessment of settlements);

Income from the increase in the value of a land plot, received when it is sold in the future.

Capitalization rate determined using three approaches:

1) Sberbank rate on long-term foreign currency deposits is used, because investing in land is one of the directions of movement of monetary capital.

2) cumulative construction technique, which takes into account risk-free rate (for example, the Sberbank interest rate on foreign currency deposits), country risk (for example, for Moscow 3-6% is the minimum value in Russia), liquidity risk (the risk associated with the possibility of losses during the sale of real estate due to insufficient development or instability of the market).

3) m market squeeze method (analysis of comparative sales). The capitalization rate is equal to income divided by the sales price of a similar property. It is advisable to calculate the average value over several sales.

Remainder method for land derives from the classical theory of land economics, originally developed for agricultural land, which treats all income attributed to land as residual. In real estate valuation practice, this method is used when buildings and structures have not yet been built (a technical and economic analysis of new construction is being carried out) or are relatively new.

II. Comparative (or analogue) methods.

Sales comparison method most suitable for assessing vacant land plots. It is based on actual transaction prices of comparable properties.

Evaluation can be carried out in two ways: by elements of comparison and using units of comparison. Elements of comparison name the characteristics of land plots and the conditions for concluding transactions with them, which affect the value of the sale price. These elements include the following factors:

The composition of the rights being assessed; terms of financing the transaction; terms of sale; market conditions (trade timing); location;

Zoning conditions and other restrictions; physical characteristics;

Availability of communications (transport accessibility, presence or proximity of utility networks, conditions for connecting to them, etc.).

Units of comparison – these are typical assessment units for each market segment, for example, the price for:

1 hectare (for sales of large tracts of land for agricultural or forestry purposes, for industrial use, when dividing land tracts into standard plots);

1 sq. meter (for sales of land in city centers for commercial development);

1 frontal meter (when assessing land intended for commercial enterprises - the length along the street border);

Lot (price for land plots of standard shape and size in areas of mass development);

Unit of density.

If this method is used, the appraiser first identifies a number of actual sales of land plots in the relevant real estate market that are similar to those being assessed based on a set of indicators. The comparable properties are then adjusted for differences between the subject property and each of the comparable sites (size, location, soil type, topography, economic conditions, etc.).

If there are not a sufficient number of comparable sales in the area where the property being assessed is located, sales of plots of similar use with similar characteristics in neighboring regions are selected and adjustments are made for the difference in the importance of the territories.

The advantage of the method is its ease of use. The disadvantage is that comparative data are not always available, which is typical for the conditions of modern Russia.

Transfer or Correlation Method is based on the theoretical premise that for each type of land development there is a certain proportion between the cost of land and the cost of buildings. The method is based on identifying the average ratio for certain types of real estate in a certain region and taking it into account in the assessment.

The matching method is appropriate when there is an obvious insufficiency of comparable sales of vacant land plots. It is able to give acceptable results when analyzing sites with relatively new buildings, the value of which can be determined using the cost method. As buildings age and wear and tear accumulate, the initial ratio of the value of land and improvements (buildings) changes in favor of an increasing share attributable to the value of the land.

III. Cost-based (or regulatory) methods.

Cost-based methods are based on the use of strict standards and assume unambiguous assessment. At the same time, the classical cost approach for valuing land plots, as a rule, is not used, but the principle of the cost model is used. Cost methods are used in determining the best and most efficient use of land as vacant. They help determine the market value of plots in cases where there is no data on completed transactions.

Removal method defines the market value of the land plot itself as the difference between the market value of the entire property (land plot with buildings) and the cost of the buildings.

This method is recommended by the Goskomzem of the Russian Federation for carrying out cadastral valuation of land plots, including industrial plots, to all subjects of the Russian Federation: “... Market prices per unit of land area of ​​typical land plots are established... for land plots built up with individual residential buildings, dachas, cottages, garden houses, with applying the cost approach, which involves subtracting the replacement cost of the building minus its depreciation... from the total market price of the property...". Mass valuation of land plots is carried out in a similar way in Sweden.

Development cost determination method (or subdivision method) applies primarily to undeveloped land. It determines the total value of the land, which will be divided into individual plots of land intended for sale. All necessary costs for their development are subtracted from the estimated cash proceeds from the sale of plots. And thus the value of undeveloped land is determined. As a rule, these are large non-standard land masses, for which the issue of their rational long-term development is being resolved. Breaking down into plots that correspond to typical market sales conditions in a given area makes it possible not only to substantiate the optimal development hypothesis, but also to assess the investment attractiveness of the entire land mass. The assessment work is to determine:

the size and number of plots, requirements for their improvement, corresponding to typical sales conditions in the area;

sales prices of improved plots, circulation time and expected revenue from their sale;

the investor's costs for the development of plots and their subsequent sale, taking into account the expected profit from investments in improvements;

the current value of the land mass based on the expected net income, taking into account the impact of the project and the frequency of receipt of funds.

Infrastructure Cost Estimation Method applies to lands of populated areas. It takes into account the cost of creating the engineering infrastructure of a city or town (construction of roads, underground communications, etc.). Next, the share of costs attributable to the land plot being assessed is highlighted.