At the present stage, the economy in developed countries has become technotronic, which is reflected in the unity “man – computer – automated means of production”. That is why socio-economic development in the second half of the last century and at the beginning of this century is characterized by the growing role of the human factor. In such conditions, a person, who is the main productive force, must be armed with the means of production and knowledge, that is, be sufficiently educated. Information support is a well-known method of transmission and helps a person in carrying out appropriate work actions, but does not perform them instead. Currently, intellectual work that generates knowledge is becoming increasingly valuable. That is why in the modern economy human resources play a decisive role in achieving competitive advantages and ensuring quality parameters of economic growth.

Building your intellectual edge is the key to success. In the current economic conditions, the development of the intellectual factor is more effective than, for example, capital-intensive improvement of the organization of the use of various outdated technologies. According to Peter Drucker, “no matter what material resources a system has, they do not multiply on their own. Both the state and the company are developed by the energy and intelligence of the people who make them up.”

Nowadays, an enterprise's labor resources are increasingly viewed as human capital. It should be noted that the concepts of “labor resources” and “human capital” are not synonymous. Labor resources can be transformed into capital, but for this it is necessary to create conditions that provide the opportunity to realize human potential in the results of the organization's activities. That is, if a person is engaged in social production, and labor resources bring real income and create wealth, then they can be called capital.
The effectiveness of the development of an enterprise and the economy of states as a whole largely depends on how much money and at what point in time it is allocated to the development of human capital. This type of investment brings a significant economic and social effect in terms of volume, long-term and integral in nature, therefore it is the most profitable from the point of view of the individual, the enterprise and the entire society as a whole. Thus, in the USA, according to some estimates, part of the investment in human capital is more than 15% of GDP, which exceeds gross investment in houses, equipment and warehouses.

According to the website auditfin.com, in developed countries, 60% of the increase in national income is due to the increase in knowledge and education of society. American scientists have calculated the amount of GDP produced by workers with a duration of education of 10.5; 12.5 and more than 14 years: it turned out that it is the third group (with more than 14 years of education) that accounts for over half of GDP. Similar studies were carried out in Russia several years ago. According to Rossiyskaya Gazeta, the results were similar: people with higher education, making up a quarter of the workforce, produced 56% of the value of national income.

Currently, the problem of the formation, development and use of human capital is receiving considerable attention. Ukrainian scientists such as E.A. Grishnova, A.M. Kolot, V.N. Petyukh, V.M. Danyuk, V.I. Kutsenko, G.I. Evtushenko, T.I. Shparaga, Ya.M. Dutkevich, V.P. Antonyuk, I.N. Lashchenko, Yu.B. Skazhenik, A.V. Lokhmach and many others explore the essence of human capital and the specifics of its formation in Ukraine.

The emergence of the theory of human capital is associated with the scientific works of William Patty, Adam Smith, and Alfred Marshall. The final formation of the theory of human capital dates back to the 50-60s. XX century. The theoretical framework was formulated by American economist Theodore Schultz, and the basic theoretical model was developed by Gary Becker. Becker was the first to carry out a statistically objective calculation of the economic efficiency of the education process, defining the return on investment in education as the ratio of income to expenses. According to G. Becker's estimates, the efficiency is 12-14% of annual profit.

According to the author, to determine income from higher education, it is necessary to compare the income of individuals who graduated from college and those who graduated only from high school. At the same time, it is possible to include in the costs of study, along with direct expenses, the income lost by students during their years of study, which is measured by the value of the time they spent on studying. Despite the presence of a large number of opponents, the theory of human capital is one of the main ones in the field of research devoted to human resources.

One of the controversial issues remains the formation of human capital. The definition of which is an important aspect in considering the entire system of human capital restoration. The formation of human capital needs to be studied as a process of searching, renewing and improving high-quality productive characteristics of a person with which he acts in social production. The factors on which the formation of human capital depends can be combined into the following groups: socio-demographic, institutional, integration, socio-mental, environmental, economic, production, demographic, socio-economic (Fig. 1).

Fig.1: Groups of factors that form human capital

From this we can conclude that the category of human capital is a complex structurally systemic object of socio-economic research. O.A. Grishnova believes that human capital is an economic category that characterizes the totality of productive abilities, personal traits and motivations of individuals formed and developed as a result of investments, which are in their ownership, are used in economic activity, contribute to the growth of labor productivity and thereby influence growth income (earnings) of its owner and national income.

Thus, human capital should be considered at the national, regional, industry levels, as well as at the enterprise and individual levels. At the macroeconomic level, human capital includes the contribution of the region, country to the level of education, professional training and competence, health, and so on. This level consists of the aggregate human capital of the entire population of a region or country. At the enterprise level, human capital represents the combined skills and productive abilities of all its employees. At the individual level, human capital is the knowledge, skills, accumulated experience and other production characteristics acquired by a person in the process of study, professional training, and practical experience with the help of which he can earn income.
American scientist J. Kendrick distinguishes between tangible and intangible forms of human capital. To material capital embodied in people, he includes expenses necessary for the physical formation of a person, that is, expenses for raising children (excluding expenses for their education). J. Kendrick considers intangible human capital the accumulated expenses for general education and special training, part of the accumulated expenses for health care and the costs of moving labor. He believes that the concept of “human capital” reflects not only a quantitative assessment of qualifications and educational potential, but also expands the boundaries of the concept of “capital”, reflecting all workers in the role of entrepreneurs who have property that generates profit. In this interpretation, each employee who has a certain, growing level of education and practical experience becomes the owner of “individual capital,” investments in which increase his future income. With this approach, the fundamental line between social classes is erased, leaving only differences in the scale of entrepreneurial property, and not in the lack of it among workers. In this case, the role of entrepreneurship is constantly decreasing, and workers become the owners of an increasingly larger part of the capital.

MM. Kritsky believes that human capital is realized as an enrichment of human life and society, based on saving direct labor. The basic law of movement of human capital expresses the unity of saving labor and enriching this life activity. Human capital is the self-enrichment of people’s life activities, which is realized in the quality of their life.

Understanding human capital as a set of socially expedient production knowledge, skills, and abilities provides the basis for the following important generalizations:

• human capital is a combination of natural abilities and human energy with acquired general educational and professional knowledge. Such unification occurs in the process of forming human capital through all types of acquisition of new knowledge based on certain investments;
• human capital should be considered at three levels: macroeconomic, enterprise level and individual level;
• human capital is divided into tangible and intangible forms. The tangible form of human capital is the costs of the physical formation of a person, and the intangible form includes expenses for education, health care and the movement of labor.

There is no unity in the views of researchers on the problem of the relationship between human and physical capital. One of the main problems of the present time is the distinction between the concepts of “human capital” and “labor force”. Some consider these two concepts to be synonymous, others give definitions that are similar in content. According to O.F. Liskov, in order to form a labor force - a product that is put up for sale, an individual must select the necessary elements of human capital included in the labor force, that is, the labor force consists of some necessary elements of human capital.

Most of these features of physical and human capital, formulated by S.A. Woodpecker, fair:

• human capital takes the form of variable capital and interacts with physical capital as part of total productive capital;
• both capitals must correspond to each other, that is, complex and expensive equipment must be managed by highly qualified specialists, who in turn are highly paid;
• the formation of both requires significant expenses and diversion of funds from current consumption;
• investments in both physical and human capital can lead to accumulation;
• human and physical capital have a monetary value.

There are a number of other analogies between human and physical capital. For example, both bring income to the owner, both are integral components of economic growth. Investment decisions and their consequences are analyzed in the same way for both physical and human capital.

Russian economist A.F. Lyskov notes that the most important property of human capital is its dynamic nature. Elements are constantly added to human capital under the influence of certain circumstances, and the value of existing ones decreases, increases or is completely removed. This is how the value of human capital itself changes. Often, only the positive dynamics of human capital are considered, but negative dynamics also have an impact on the production process and the success of the enterprise as a whole. Another feature of human capital is the nature of the risk that an entrepreneur assumes when purchasing labor.

Other Russian scientists believe that human capital has a dual character. In a broad sense, it should be considered as a socio-economic form of the existing quality of human potential on the scale of a particular society. In a narrow sense, this is that part of it that is productively used by entrepreneurs to make a profit and bears the signs of K. Marx’s variable capital. The theory of human capital divides it into two types: general and specific. The total capital consists of the general training of the employee, which allows him to work in different profiles at many enterprises, paid for by himself. Specific capital is training directly related to the activities of a particular enterprise and paid for by it.

When an employee is released, both parties suffer losses: the company has wasted money on training, and the employee will not be able to transfer the acquired knowledge to another organization. It is important for an employee to remain at the enterprise, since when changing jobs he will have to master specific training from scratch. The enterprise, in turn, clings to the employee, because there is no such specific resource on the labor market. A striking example of specific human capital are workers in knowledge-intensive industries, such as nuclear and aircraft manufacturing. Therefore, the closure of such an industry leads to a depreciation of specific human capital.

Human capital is also classified according to its forms:

• living capital contains knowledge and health embodied in a person;
• inanimate capital, which is created when knowledge is translated into physical and material forms;
• institutional capital is the institutions that contribute to the effective use of all types of human capital.

Human capital, being part of total capital, represents the accumulated costs of general education, special training, healthcare, and movement of labor.

There is a classification by type of expenses and investments in human capital. I.V. Ilyinsky identifies a classification according to the types of expenses and investments in human capital, divided into the following components: education capital, health capital and cultural capital. Health capital is an investment in a person made with the aim of forming, supporting, improving and strengthening his health and performance. It is the basis for human capital in general. Educational capital consists of expenses for a person’s education, starting with general secondary education and continuing with studies during working life. Cultural capital includes expenses for the constant improvement of a person’s cultural level.

There are two types of capital based on the form of consumption:

• consumer – created by the flow of services consumed directly (creative and educational activities);
• productive, consumption that contributes to social utility (the creation of means of production, technologies, productive services and products).

It is also worth keeping in mind that in the theory of human capital, the concept of “capital” is interpreted differently than in the methodology of K. Marx, who wrote that “capital is not a thing, but a certain, social production relation belonging to a certain historical formation of society, which represented in a thing and gives this thing a specific social character.” In Marxist theory, this concept is considered based on social class positions, as relations of ownership and control over the means of production. In classical English political economy, the concept of capital combined two aspects: firstly, control over the factors of production and, secondly, the right to receive future income. Neoclassical theory connects the concept of capital with the ability to generate income.

The connection between human capital and capital can be traced through the concepts of labor and variable capital, which is directed by the entrepreneur to acquire labor. Labor force is that part of human capital that an individual is willing to sell to an entrepreneur in order to receive from the latter the means of subsistence for himself and his family in the form of wages. K. Marx believed that “becoming a commodity, labor power, like any other commodity, has two properties: value and use value.” The first is interesting for the worker, because this is the price of labor power, which is equal to the amount of his wages. The second is of interest to the employer, since it is through the productive consumption of labor that added value is created, which is appropriated by the entrepreneur.
Proponents of the theory of human capital, using the example of obtaining an education, justify the growing cost of capital: if an increase in the educational level of an employee entails additional earnings that exceed the cost of training, then the cost of obtaining an education is characterized as an investment in human capital. Critics of the theory of human capital believe that there is no self-growing value, that is, capital. This is justified by the fact that a necessary condition for increasing the cost of qualifications is the work of the employee himself; it does not increase on its own.

Currently, the role of science and education is growing, and the importance of intellectual activity in all spheres of production is increasing. Intellectual work, which is the activity of people in the production, assimilation and practical application of knowledge, has acquired a dominant position. This process manifests itself in two ways: the role of such branches of the social sphere as education and science is growing; The importance of intellectual activity within other sectors of the national economy is increasing. These trends contribute to the formation and improvement of the educational, professional, scientific, spiritual potential of society and are the most important factors of socio-economic progress. At the beginning of the 20th century, according to A. Marshall, the number of manual workers was five times greater than the number of intellectual workers. Now in developed countries more than 60% of the economically active population is engaged in mental work, and in the USA - 75%.
Very convincing factual data on the dramatic shifts in the proportions of capital investments that have occurred over the past centuries are cited in the article by V. Shchetinin “Human capital and the ambiguity of its interpretation.” If in the XVII–XVIII centuries. in the total mass of capital, the share of human capital did not exceed 10%, then by 1913 it rose to almost 33%. But these proportions changed dramatically in the second half of the 20th century. and especially over the last two decades due to the information revolution. In Western countries, the share of accumulated investments in human capital in the total fund of their capitalized development expenditures rose, according to minimal estimates, to 56-57% in 1973 and 67-69% (in the USA to 74-76%) in 1997–1998 gg. (Table 1) .

Table 1 - Change in the structure of total capital in Western countries%.

The undoubted merit of human capital theorists is the recognition of the primary role of man in social production. This is due to the strengthening role of education, which is becoming the main resource and source of the formation of a highly developed workforce. It should be noted that domestic enterprises currently have at their disposal a fairly high potential of human capital. In 2002, 25.5% of all Ukrainian workers graduated from universities of I-II accreditation levels, another 22.6% from universities of III-IV accreditation levels; in industry, the share of such workers was 25 and 15.1%, respectively.
The theory of human capital can be used as an analytical tool in identifying the economic efficiency of education. Proponents of this theory clearly defined its individual economic effect for an individual. The main result of the economic return of education is an increase in the employee’s income due to an increase in his educational and professional level. Human capital theorists argue that differences in earnings reflect differences in labor productivity. Income from education is calculated as the difference in lifetime earnings of those with unequal education. Education expenses, in addition to direct expenses, also include lost income. This is the potential earnings that a person could get if he worked rather than studied.

The theory of human capital has gained significant public dissemination and recognition in world scientific thought. Scientific research is constantly carried out and many scientific publications are published on these issues. Unfortunately, today issues related to the study of the problems of forming, preserving and increasing the efficiency of use of human capital in Ukraine are among the most unexplored in the general structure of economic science.

There is now a need for a comprehensive lifelong learning strategy consisting of early childhood learning, primary education, improved school-to-work transition with closer links between education and the labor market, and effective training systems, which provide the opportunity to stay in education throughout life. However, in order for this to become feasible, constant investments in human capital are required, both at the individual level and at the level of the enterprise and the state.

Dividing investments in human capital at the individual, enterprise and state levels is also advisable due to the fact that the degree of underinvestment at these levels is different. By nature, man is, on the one hand, a physical being, and on the other hand, a social being. Because of this, he acts as a bearer of both certain natural individual abilities and talents that he possesses from birth and which nature has endowed him with, as well as accumulated knowledge, skills, and abilities acquired in the process of social life and through the expenditure of certain physical, material and financial resources.

Natural human abilities and acquired social qualities are similar in their economic role to natural resources and physical capital. This is manifested in the fact that in its original state, a person, like natural resources, does not bring any economic effect. But after certain expenses and preparation are made, individual human capital and a set of individual competencies are formed, which can subsequently potentially generate income, like physical capital.
Individual human capital will generate income only if a person has the opportunity to employ himself in social production by organizing his own activities or selling his labor to an entrepreneur. This is what justifies the feasibility of using individual human capital. To transform individual human capital into productive capital, conditions must be identified that would ensure the realization of human potential in the results of its activities.
Getting an education and starting work is the initial stage in the formation of individual human capital. The next stage is longer. It is based on the acquisition of professional qualifications and life experience. Human capital represents intangible durable goods that accumulate and are realized as a result of people's production activities over time. The most important feature of capital is that it is itself a product of production. Human capital as a product of production represents knowledge, skills and abilities accumulated in the process of training and work. Human capital, like any other, can accumulate. The accumulation of human capital begins with preschool education and continues throughout social activity.

The main tool for the formation of human capital, both at the individual level and at the enterprise and state levels, is investing in people. Investments in human capital are all types of investments in a person that can be valued in monetary or other form and are expedient in nature, that is, they contribute to increased labor productivity and increased income at all three levels. Current expenses are carried out with the expectation that they will be repeatedly compensated by higher levels of income in the future.

Of all types of investments in human capital, the most important are investments in health and education, as well as in ongoing vocational training. Health care spending, which includes health care, lifestyle improvements, and others, creates conditions for improving the quality and efficiency of human capital use. The peculiarity of such investments is that they contribute to a better perception of knowledge, skills and abilities and, accordingly, contribute to an increase in human productivity. General and vocational education, in turn, improves the quality and level of human knowledge, and, consequently, improves the quality of human capital as a whole.

In comparison with investments in other forms of capital, investments in human capital are the most profitable from the point of view of both the individual and the entire society as a whole, since they bring a fairly significant economic and social effect in terms of volume, long-term and integral in nature.

Investment is an important prerequisite for the formation of human capital, but is not yet development. The development of human capital occurs both in the process of initial investment and subsequent investment, which occurs in the process of practical human activity. That is, the development of human capital is the process of creating a person’s productive abilities through investments in specific processes of his activity.

It should be especially noted that personal motivation is a very important and necessary condition for the process of human capital circulation (Fig. 2) to be complete. Thanks to this process, there is a qualitative renewal of human capital through the emergence of new needs of the market for the production of goods, which are constantly growing and require new competencies and in which an increase in the level of knowledge and practical skills of people is accompanied by the development of opportunities for their practical implementation. Due to this, individual incomes increase and the country's national income grows.

Effective career management involves having the necessary information about what happens to employees at different stages of their careers. To do this, the enterprise can conduct special research, the results of which are presented in the form of a career chart, which makes it possible to track the employee’s work history.

Each stage of an employee’s working career is connected not only to the level of the position, but also to a certain stage in life. Scientists distinguish the following stages of a working career: previous, formation, promotion, retention, completion and retirement.

The previous stage (up to 25 years) is associated with obtaining secondary or higher education or a profession. During this period, a person can change several types of activities in search of the most suitable one that would satisfy all his needs. If such an activity is defined, the process of self-affirmation of the employee as an individual begins.

Formation (25-30 years) is the period of mastering the acquired profession, acquiring experience and skills. At this stage, qualifications are formed, the need for independence arises, a family is created, which stimulates the employee to increase income.

Promotion stage (30-45 years). During this period, the process of growth and promotion occurs, the process of self-expression begins, the need for self-affirmation, achievement of higher status and level of remuneration grows.

The preservation stage (45-60 years) is characterized by actions to consolidate the achieved results, the highest level of improvement of qualifications, knowledge, skills, experience, craftsmanship begins, the beginning of respect, the need for self-expression grows. A person reaches the heights of independence and self-affirmation.

The final stage (60-65 years) is the search for a replacement, transfer of knowledge and skills to young people, preparation for retirement. Self-expression stabilizes, respect grows, and interest in other sources of income intensifies.

Pension stage (after 65 years) - retirement, preparation and conduct of a new type of activity, self-expression in a new field of activity, stabilization of respect, health care, pension amount.

Let's analyze the stages of the working career of an employee of our enterprise, table. 2.

Table 2 – Career of the head of the financial and economic department of our enterprise

Date of admission	Opening hours	Job title	Age, years	Company name
	2 months, 1 day	Car mechanic		Donetsk section of transport mechanization "Donbassantekhmontazh"
	4 years, 11 months			Donetsk Polytechnic Institute
	1 month 8 days	Miner's Apprentice		Mine management named after newspapers "Socialist Donbass"
		Miner's Apprentice		Mine named after A.B. Batova
		Passenger 5th category		Mine named after A.B. Batova
	5 months, 13 days
		Loan officer		Donetsk branch of Joint Stock Bank "INKO"
		Acting Head of Economic Analysis Department		Donetsk branch of Joint Stock Bank "INKO"
	8 months, 20 days	Head of Consolidated Economic Reporting Department		Donetsk branch of Joint Stock Bank "INKO"
	5 months, 11 days	Economist-Head of Credit Department		CB "Privatbank"
		Lead Economist		CB "Privatbank"
	1 year, 9 months, 18 days.	Head of Correspondent Relations Department		CB "Privatbank"
	1 year, 3 months, 17 days.	Legal Advisor		JSC "Valentin"
	2 years, 7 months, 5 days.	Head of Natural Gas Supply Department		JSC "Valentin"
	4 months, 18 days	Acting Director of Economics		State enterprise "Luganskugol"
	1 month, 28 days	Director of Economics and Marketing		Association "Ukrogneupor"
	1 year, 5 months, 10 days.	Deputy Director for Economics		State Enterprise "Donteplomash"
	2 years, 9 months, 17 days.	Head of Financial Department		Our enterprise
	1 year, 9 months	Head of Financial and Economic Department		Our enterprise

A career chart is a career management tool that is a graphical description of what should happen or is happening to people at different stages of their career.

Based on the work record of an employee of our enterprise, it has been established that his work career is a “springboard” model within a certain enterprise. Figure 3 allows us to conclude that the main reason for demotion at certain stages of work activity is the transfer to other enterprises.

The period of a working career is the first before the start of university studies and the employment of low-paid professions is determined by the young age of the worker, industrial adaptation, secondary education and insufficient knowledge and skills at work. Work in such positions as a miner's apprentice, a 5th grade tunneler is due to training at the Donetsk Polytechnic Institute and practical training for workers. The position of acting head of the economic analysis department, which the employee held from the age of 23, characterizes the beginning of self-affirmation and the process of completing production adaptation. Since the employee holds the position of head of the financial and economic department at the age of 38, one can judge that this is not yet the maximum possible level of his professional development. Until the age of 45, he has the opportunity to rise to the position of director through the ranks.

As Fig. 4, the employee whose career we are analyzing, before taking the position of head of the financial and economic department of our enterprise, changed several positions and enterprises. Ukrainian scientists propose an indicator to reflect promotions received by an employee within a particular enterprise. Due to the fact that the number of promotions in itself does not indicate anything, it is worth correlating it with the time during which the person works. We get the following expression for this indicator:

where P is an indicator of the rate of promotions that the employee received;
m – the number of promotions that the employee received at the enterprise;
t – time during which the employee is engaged in labor activity at this enterprise, years.

Consequently, the employee whose career is being analyzed changed eleven companies during his career. At some he did not receive a single promotion, therefore the indicator for other enterprises should be calculated using the above formula (Table 3).

Table 3 - Calculation of the rate of increases that the employee received

Thus, calculations indicate that the most effective career in terms of the speed of advancement of a given employee is observed at the enterprise Donetsk branch of the INKO Joint Stock Bank, where the calculated rate of increase is the highest in comparison with others and is equal to 1.28. However, the figure indicates that from the point of view of the achieved social status of the Director of Economics and Marketing, and, consequently, the level of wages, a career at the Ukrogneupor Association is more effective. Therefore, when calculating the effectiveness of a career, it is necessary to take into account various factors, such as the level of wages, the social status of the employee, the employee’s own life value orientations, and his worldview. This is due to the fact that the employee compares his career not only with career advancement, but also with life goals for the future.

Professional training of employees is a multifunctional process that affects all components of the enterprise. The following directly depend on the scale, progress and results of training:

• current and future performance of the enterprise;
• current and future expenses associated with the activities of the enterprise;
• the level of risk of incompetent actions of personnel during the operation of the enterprise.

The result of the vocational training system is not unambiguous, therefore it is necessary to assess the economic efficiency of vocational training of workers. Possible goals for calculating the economic efficiency of the vocational training process are:

• determining the optimal amount of training costs as part of total production costs;
• making decisions regarding forms and methods of training;
• comparison of different technology options and training tools;
• comparison of the economic efficiency of training with the economic efficiency of other possible investments of the enterprise’s funds, which provide a commensurate increase in the efficiency of the main production.

The economic efficiency of any vocational training activities can be determined by the ratio between indicators that describe the results of the enterprise's activities after the start of the activities, and indicators characterizing the total costs associated with the activities of the enterprise for the same period.

In practice, cost indicators when assessing economic efficiency are selected so that they can be summed up, that is, reduced to one point in time and adjusted for the share of the analyzed event in total costs. In this case, the indicator of the economic efficiency of an event is the difference between the amount of its contribution to the increase in the result of the enterprise’s activities and the amount of expenses. The economic efficiency of vocational training is determined by the ratio between the total costs of organizing and conducting the educational process and the financial results of training, expressed by an increase in the results of the enterprise’s activities, an increase in its potential, a reduction in the costs of ensuring the functioning of the enterprise, and a reduction in the level of risk of its functioning.

The connection between the training process and changes in enterprise performance indicators is expressed by a number of factors that reflect changes in motivation, functional behavior and social relationships of employees who have undergone training. The results of implementing a personnel training system may include:

• increase in the volume of services provided as a result of meeting the additional need for workers in the professional and qualification areas;
• reducing the cost of work performed;
• improving the quality of services provided;
• reducing the level of staff turnover as a result of professional training of personnel;
• the effect of the introduction of inventions and rationalization proposals of employees who have been trained according to the curriculum;
• increasing the speed of work of trained employees;
• reducing the duration of analysis and assessment of the situation;
• broadening one's horizons, increasing the number of options considered when making decisions by managers and specialists, which affects the optimality of decisions made;
• reduction of losses from inaccurate assessment of the situation and incorrect actions of employees, which is associated with the consolidation of skills in more competent management of technical systems during the training process;
• preventing losses from the unforeseen occurrence of undesirable events and situations, limiting the spread of so-called “chains of undesirable developments of events”;
• reducing the likelihood of accidents and equipment breakdowns, threats to human life and health;
• strengthening the corporate consciousness of employees, bringing together the personal interests of employees with the interests of the enterprise;
• exchange of information between employees of different enterprises who undergo training together, dissemination of best practices and other innovations;
• increasing the likelihood of coordinated, informed joint activity and decision making.

Improving the quality of work can be assessed:

• a decrease in the number of erroneous actions of one employee throughout the year associated with training results;
• expenses to eliminate the consequences of the employee’s erroneous actions.

An increase in the number of action options is assessed by a change in the number of action options per employee, which is associated with the completion of training and the average contribution from the implementation of each option to the result (income) of the training system.

The overall effect of all groups of factors is measured by the increase in the result of the enterprise’s activities (income).

Thus, the economic efficiency of professional training for our company’s personnel was assessed using the net present value method.
The discounting method is used to reduce income and expenses to one moment of labor. Calculation of income from investments in human capital involves their progressive discounting and comparison with current expenses. Because the income that will be received in the future always has less value for people compared to those that are received today.

Net present value is considered a criterion for the feasibility of an investment project in human capital and is calculated using the formula:

where NPV is the net present value of human capital, UAH;
Bt – income from investments in human capital in period t, thousand UAH;
Сt – amount of expenses in period t, thousand UAH;
n – number of periods;
i – interest rate index, or discount rate.

An investment in human capital is profitable if the net present value of capital is greater than or equal to zero. If NPV=0, the investor only recovers his expenses. The higher the net present value of human capital relative to zero, the more efficient the investment.

Let's consider investments in human capital that were made by our enterprise in 2007 and 2008 and planned for 2009 (Table 4).

Table 4 – Indicators of economic efficiency of professional training of personnel of our enterprise for 2007-2009.

Indicator
Study expenses, thousand UAH.
Duration of influence of study on the economic results of the enterprise, years
Income from investments in studies in the first year, thousand UAH.
Income from investments in studies in the second year, thousand UAH.
Income from investments in studies in the third year, thousand UAH.
Discount rate %
Discount on cost, thousand UAH.

The difficulty of using this method in practice is the choice of interest level - the discount factor. In a market economy, this value is determined based on the deposit interest on deposits. In practice, it is accepted above this value due to inflation and the risk associated with investments.

In our case, the discount rate was 10%, which is considered fair for equity. Consequently, we will trace the dependence of the value of the net present value on the size of the established interest rate. To do this, we will calculate the net present value for different values ​​of the discount rate, table. 5.

Table 5 - The cost of human capital and the interest rate of our enterprise in 2007 and 2008.

Based on the calculations given in Table 5, a graph of the dependence of net present value on the discount rate was constructed, Fig. 5.

Therefore, as the graph shows, investment projects in the human capital of our enterprise, which were implemented in 2007 and 2008 and planned for 2009, are minimally profitable at a discount rate of 90%, that is, at such a rate percent, the efficiency of projects reaches a limit and the company only recovers its costs from personnel training. Under conditions, if the discount rate exceeds 90%, it would be advisable to abandon investment projects in vocational training.

By summarizing the above, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. Human capital is a combination of natural abilities, acquired knowledge, skills, abilities in the process of production activities, as well as mobility, motivation and physical condition of a person. In other words, human capital is a set of competencies that is expediently used by a person in one or another sphere of social reproduction and contributes to the growth of labor productivity and production efficiency.
2. The development of human capital occurs throughout the entire social activity of a person through constant investment both at the individual level and at the level of the enterprise and the state.
3. Investments in human capital are the most profitable compared to other forms of capital, since they bring a fairly significant and long-lasting economic and social effect.

Literature

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• Personnel Policy and HR Strategies

Key words:

1 -1

The development of human capital is perhaps the most important task of the company. Moreover, this question has recently been raised on the scale of an entire country as an indispensable condition for its development and prosperity on the world economic arena.

You will learn:

• What is the basis for the formation and development of human capital.
• What kind of investments can be made in the development of human capital.
• How human capital can influence the innovative development of an enterprise.
• Why manage human capital development.
• How to assess the level of human capital development in an organization.
• What problems does the development of human capital have in Russia?

How companies can properly develop human capital

The more mental baggage a company has, the higher its competitive advantages, the better and more efficiently it can organize its production process, ensuring the optimal transformation of intangible resources into tangible capital.

Highly qualified specialists can increase the attractiveness of a brand and influence the profitability of an organization. To a large extent, the value of an enterprise is determined by innovation; it can be easily increased by financially motivating employees.

Today, more and more companies are coming to the realization that not only financial capital determines the actual value of a business. Intellectual capital is the main strategic element of industry. In the figure you can see the relationship between intellectual capital and the actual value of the organization:

Financial capital of the organization- This is not only cash, but also shares and other securities.

Intellectual capital of the organization– this is the mental baggage of the staff. Knowledge is the basis of an enterprise’s wealth, intangible assets that improve the quality of production processes. They are the ones who create added value for the enterprise.

Improving business with the help of intellectual capital is not theoretical research, but actual practice. Through this asset, you can successfully manage profits, create new products and attract customers.

Intellectual capital should be understood as all those information resources that are at the disposal of the company. Intellectual capital is a combination of human, structural and relational capital. Intellectual capital also includes information capital, intellectual property, customer capital, brand awareness and learning capital.

The knowledge that forms intellectual capital can be explicit or implicit, but it always has a useful function.

Human capital of the organization arises due to the presence of personnel. It is formed through the knowledge, talents, abilities and competence of employees. This process is long-term and goes through several stages.

• Initially, there is a search and selection of candidates who will later form human capital, then the relationship is formalized.
• In the future, the employer interests and motivates employees to work more actively and productively.
• In the process of cooperation, investments are made in human capital through the development and training of employees.
• And finally, a merger and/or acquisition occurs.

In general, a company’s human capital consists of several elements that can be reflected in the form of formula (1):

The share of influence of human capital on business value ranges from 30 to 80%, depending on the sector of the economy. But one way or another, the contribution of people to the profitability of the organization is the determining factor. Human capital improves competitiveness. And capital is directly formed from the skills and abilities of employees, through whose efforts goods and services are produced.

Some people confuse the concepts of human capital and human potential. The main difference between these interchangeable terms is that capital creates the market value of a company through employee participation in building success. This is a very important factor in the development of an organization. It is the employees who create the added value of the enterprise.

What does the formation and development of human capital depend on?

Due to the fact that the development and economic prosperity of the country directly depends on the specialists who inhabit it, the priority concern of the state can be called ensuring the improvement of the capabilities of citizens (intellectual, physical and spiritual). This task is being solved within the framework of achieving the goal of human capital development, which will inevitably lead to an increase in the potential of the entire society, as well as an increase in the resource of the country as a whole. High opportunities for society depend on the dynamics of economic growth. So, the development of human capital is one of the key tasks of our time. What is needed to solve it?

• First of all, to develop the abilities of each member of society and company employee, the most favorable environment should be created, which is practically unattainable without improving living conditions in general.
• Secondly, it is necessary to increase the competitiveness of not only human capital itself, but also those sectors of the economy that provide it socially.

Specialists who work on solving the problem of improving human resources are sociologists, economists and psychologists. Their tasks include developing issues of human capital development at three levels:

• development of the individual (micro level);
• development of the state as a whole (macro level);
• development of enterprises, commercial companies (meso level).

At the state level, human capital is collected through the efforts of all members of society and is a national wealth and asset. Within each region, its own similar resource is formed, and then it is combined throughout the country.

In order to ensure the development of human capital at the regional level, the economic activities of economic entities in a given area should be improved. Next, the human resource is summarized based on the results of each enterprise in the region. Accumulated human capital ultimately determines the level of socio-economic development of the territory.

To measure human capital, adding up the number of employees is not enough. It is necessary to calculate all their abilities, knowledge, and the amount of available information. After all, it is this potential that activates production at one level or another and determines the degree of performance of the company.

Each person has personal capital; within a social group, all individual achievements are collected into subsystems with a hierarchical structure. By connecting with each other, personal capital forms social capital. If human capital for one individual plays an important role in terms of opportunities to achieve a certain quality of life, then across the entire region or country as a whole, this resource can serve as a means of achieving more global goals.

A person exists in the labor market with his own abilities, skills, and abilities. He brings income to his family and the enterprise where he works. But within the whole region it also acts as a social link. It can be called the building block of the economy of the region and the country as a whole.

An individual worker gives his abilities to the commercial or state enterprise (municipal) where he works. And such an enterprise, together with many others, creates a social or economic basis for the life of society.

Those talents and abilities that a person has are partly innate and partly acquired throughout his life. The task of the enterprise is to create for its employees such socio-economic conditions in which it will be easiest to increase human capital. Ultimately, all acquired knowledge will be spent for the benefit of society and will be released into the environment where the highest quality of life and the most comfortable conditions for work, development and intellectual activity are achieved.

The development of human capital is a long-term process; it can take many different forms and types, passing through all stages of the life cycle and being influenced by various social circumstances. All these factors can be divided into groups: economic, production, demographic, as well as socio-demographic, socio-economic, environmental and many others.

Human capital is formed and improved in the process of social production. The optimal environment for its development is comfortable living conditions. If a person has an increase in income, has affordable and high-quality medical and educational services at his disposal, an excellent cultural environment and comfortable living conditions, then the development of human capital will occur in the best possible way. Such conditions can be achieved with the help of appropriate state policies in the field of education, culture, healthcare, improvement, infrastructure, etc.

The numerical expression of the common resource can be viewed in the indicators of the human capital development index. These values ​​are directly related to the level of education, access to quality food, and healthcare. They reflect:

• percentage of the population deprived of adequate food;
• percentage of child mortality (under 5 years of age);
• percentage of children completing secondary education;
• percentage of literacy among adult citizens.

To ensure the formation and development of human capital, the state must take measures to:

• increasing the affordability of housing, creating favorable conditions for mortgage lending, and using such financial instruments that will contribute to the development of the housing market;
• increasing the accessibility of the consumer lending sector, increasing information openness;
• increasing opportunities for citizens to use educational loans;
• ensuring a high level of well-being of citizens, personal security, development of life and property insurance programs;
• improving the conditions of additional pension insurance.

A person achieves his highest potential by overcoming a long continuous process of formation and development of human capital, which involves factors such as education, employment, and the presence of favorable conditions for improving skills and becoming an individual.

On average, the period of human capital development takes from 15 to 25 years. We take the zero level as the initial level. Each member of society begins to develop their knowledge, skills, and abilities from scratch.

The process of human capital development begins in childhood, at the age of three or four. The child is provided with information with which he gets the opportunity to develop his talents, improve and increase his knowledge and skills. How successfully he studies will determine his future self-determination and the opportunity to realize himself and find application for his abilities in the employment market. But the potential given to a person from birth still plays a huge role.

The most significant period in the process of human capital development is the teenage period (13–23 years). It is impossible to form and develop human capital without regularly replenishing the arsenal of skills and abilities. If a person is not engaged in vocational training, if he has not devoted time and effort to his education, there is no need to talk about the development of human capital. The higher the level of knowledge a person has, the more he can improve the life of society. It turns out to be a continuous process. Highly qualified professionals create comfortable living conditions for humanity, contribute to the growth of production and economic advancement, enrich the national culture, thereby creating the prerequisites for the formation of even more highly developed individuals.

The development of human capital is a task that directly contributes to the growth of investments, the introduction of new technologies and increases the rate of return of employees from such investments.

• Investments in business: step-by-step instructions for finding and attracting investors

The practitioner tells

Creating conditions for staff self-development is a strong foundation for the formation of the organization’s human capital

Marat Nagumanov,

Director of the research and production company "Packer", Oktyabrsky (Bashkortostan)

We have set ourselves the goal of achieving a leading position in the sector of self-learning companies. My firm position is that without developing a production culture and creating comfortable conditions for people to work, it is impossible to demand self-improvement from them. And comfort at work means not only the presence of comfortable furniture, a modern computer, the creation of a sufficient level of lighting, and the provision of clean and comfortable uniforms. For favorable working conditions, it is important to achieve a number of other factors.

We need a leader whose example will captivate employees. In order for the employee to receive more, the return on capital must be increased. It's not just about salary. Total income also includes social payments. In our case, these are paid sessions in the pool, fitness classes, trips to a sanatorium, lunches at the expense of the company, and high-quality medical services on the job. The more comfortable the employer creates conditions in the workplace, the more willingly people give their strength, capabilities, and abilities for the benefit of the enterprise. Moreover, they strive to improve their level in order to become more indispensable and in demand at their job. But here the figure of the leader is also of great importance. The most visible and respectable employee in the team is an example and incentive for colleagues. I won’t lie, I try to be that kind of leader myself. Employees see my determination: I often attend various lectures and conferences, thematic events, trying to improve my own competence. Following me, many employees express a desire to participate in seminars and study modern equipment in different cities and countries.

The motivation system should be aimed at improving qualifications. It is very important to create a holistic remuneration mechanism that will be transparent to the entire team. If employees understand how they can increase their salaries, they are more likely to work in this direction. At the moment, our company is planning to introduce job descriptions, which will include information about the scope of issues for which the employee is responsible, about the skills that he should have and that he should develop, and about the projects in which the employee should take part , and about the indicators that should be achieved by him as a result of his work. Each instruction will be valid for a year. The increase in the employee’s salary will directly depend on compliance with its points. For example, according to an employment contract, a person has a salary of 10 thousand rubles. To increase it, you will have to acquire new skills, which will be listed in detail in the instructions. At the end of the year, management will check the level of achievement of new knowledge and skills. If the outcome is positive, the employee’s salary will be increased.

But managers should remember that any innovation brings results after a certain period of time. We are currently building a new system, but we expect results no earlier than after a year of putting it into operation. We can feel the initial dynamics already at the start. Thus, we see that an employee’s efficiency directly depends on his level of satisfaction with working conditions.

Investments in human capital development

The development of human capital, like any other asset, requires investment. Investments made for the development of human capital are certain actions carried out with one goal - to increase labor productivity. We can include the following events:

• organizing ways to maintain health;
• incurring expenses associated with obtaining education;
• organization of vocational training in production;
• costs of finding a job, collecting information on prices and wages;
• expenses associated with migration, as well as with the birth and upbringing of children.

All investments in the development of human capital are usually divided by specialists into:

• investments in education (special or vocational training, on-the-job retraining, self-education);
• investments in health care measures, including disease prevention, special nutrition, improving living and working conditions, as well as improving the quality of medical care;
• investments in the migration of workers to places with more favorable working conditions.

Investments in education can be divided into formal and informal. The first type involves various types of educational services offered by the state or organizations with the issuance of final documents confirming completion of training. This includes secondary school education, special education, higher education, including a second higher education, postgraduate studies, doctoral studies, on-the-job training, as well as advanced training courses.

Informal learning is training that does not have supporting documents, but is also capable of enriching a person with knowledge and increasing human capital. This includes reading literature, independently mastering any sciences, playing sports and art.

Equally important to improving productivity are health-related costs. By reducing the number of diseases and mortality, we increase the duration of the working period, the working life of a person. In this way we prolong the validity of human capital.

Each of us understands that it is possible to improve health to a certain extent, but its quality largely depends on hereditary characteristics. It is very important for an individual, as well as for society as a whole, to invest in acquiring health throughout life. Human health is an asset that is subject to wear and tear. Investing in health can slow down the process of aging and decline.

Features of investments in human capital development are as follows:

• Their effectiveness is directly related to the lifespan of the wearer. The more investments, the longer the working period of a person’s life. And the sooner investments begin, the sooner the return will be visible.
• The ability to multiply and accumulate, despite the gradual tendency towards moral and physical wear and tear.
• As human capital accumulates, it brings more and more profit, but the limit of profitability is still limited by the end of working age. As soon as a person retires or stops working for other reasons, the effectiveness of his human capital drops sharply.
• Not all investments in increasing human well-being can be recognized as expenses for the development of human capital. For example, if costs are associated with criminal and illegal activities, it is difficult to attribute them to investments in the development of human capital due to their social harmfulness and even danger.
• The nature of investments is determined by the characteristics of the culture, nationality and historical development of the society in which they are made.
• If we compare investments in the development of human capital with other types of investments, it turns out that the former are more profitable both for the carriers of capital themselves and for society as a whole.

Sources that can carry out investment activities may be:

• state;
• foundations of state and non-state importance, public organizations;
• regional associations;
• organizations, legal entities;
• individual entrepreneurs;
• supranational organizations and foundations;
• educational institutions, etc.

The state plays the most significant role among all types of sources.

But do not underestimate the importance of individual companies, organizations, and entrepreneurs. It is enterprises that are employers who have all the opportunities and conditions to engage in personnel training and development. Moreover, organizations have an information base that allows them to gain a clear understanding of the most promising areas for investment in education and training. An important factor in investing in enterprises is the net income that this type of investment brings. Once there is no profit, funding will also stop.

Ultimately, what is all this investment in personnel for? To strengthen the company's competitiveness. Consequently, the employer strives to use working time and human capital in general in the most rational way.

The practitioner tells

Self-training of personnel as a contribution to the development of human capital of the organization

Sergey Kapustin,

General Director and co-owner of the STA Logistic group of companies, Moscow

From my own experience, I know that allowing subordinates to independently control their work is simply unacceptable. Each of them, knowing that no one is checking their work, will try to rest more and work less. Many people have the same attitude towards learning: if management doesn’t force you to study, it’s better to save your energy.

As the ancient Chinese philosopher Sun Tzu said: “Hold with harm, move with gain.” In other words, I must interest the employee so that he actively engages in self-training.

Of course, employee education comes with additional costs. The company only spends the first two months of training on scholarships equal to the salary. Following the example of successful enterprises in other countries, we draw up employment contracts with a clause that allows us to demand reimbursement of training costs from an employee who fails the pre-employment test. This approach creates in people a sense of the value of education; we get employees who are interested in self-development. Already at the initial stage, it is easy for us to determine who is most responsible for learning.

Newly hired employees are required to undergo basic training. The learning process is not based on printed lecture material. We decided that it would be much more interesting to organize the preparation in the form of watching video lectures. In total, we have about 20 courses posted on our portal. Training involves initiation into the company’s values, explanation of work technology, document flow rules, and familiarization with regulations. The courses are divided into basic ones, suitable for everyone, and special ones - for individual specialists (accountants, marketers, etc.). Each newcomer studies from 10 to 15 courses over a month and a half. Upon completion of training, the employee takes an exam in electronic form. This exam is similar to the one accepted by the traffic police.

Human Capital Development Management

We are observing a number of unfavorable factors that make us more sensitive to the issue of human capital development. These factors are:

• reduction in the number of workers due to mortality in working age;
• an increase in the number of diseases due to an unhealthy lifestyle (drug addiction, smoking, alcoholism, gambling addiction);
• progressive rates of disability;
• loss of moral values ​​and ethical standards in labor relations;
• the declining role of education or its obsolescence;
• lack of opportunity to receive a modern education (lack of funds, time and effort, declining quality of education, etc.).

Human capital development is important for solving many organizational problems. Human capital needs to be managed, but it itself subsequently acts as a means of managing business profitability. With its help, you can stimulate the scientific and technological progress of an enterprise, the use of new technologies, and increased efficiency. The main approaches to the use of human capital today are competent motivation systems, leadership, the right style of management, organization of activities and prioritization. When using such approaches, human capital turns into a real tool for influencing socio-economic processes.

The possibility of chaotic formation of human capital cannot be denied. But if we expect this phenomenon to develop all its positive characteristics, then the process of formation and development of human capital must be managed consciously. All over the world, there is a shift away from the personnel management paradigm; more and more enterprises are moving directly to the administration of human capital development.

Prioritization is a key point in human capital management (Schemes 1, 2). Despite the fact that the desire to maximize human life is bearing fruit, it has not yet become a priority in management. But the formation of human capital is based precisely on this desire. In order for the priority to be realized, knowledge of people's interests, the construction of a value system, the establishment of social responsibility and the availability of appropriate resources are needed. It is important to pay enough attention to working with personnel. Look at how job search advertisements are most often formulated today: “employees with experience required” or “qualified specialists, responsible and communicative, required.” The set of requirements is very limited. Of course, experience is important, but to reveal all the benefits of human capital, it is not enough to accumulate experience alone.

Scheme 1. The art of management.

Scheme 2. Typological characteristics of personality in integration intelligence.

Many HR professionals now use psychological tests when hiring. They are also very helpful in personnel research. But tests do not always serve their purpose. They are not able to properly influence the formation and development of human capital.

For example, a large bank uses a 60-question test to find an employee. Vacant position – assistant. And the questions allow you to assess your general erudition and partly your knowledge of accounting. Such a test does not reveal the ability of an applicant for a position to summarize materials, nor does it even make it possible to determine the type of thinking and independence of decision-making in complex and contradictory situations. Consequently, tests are not capable of fulfilling the tasks of forming and developing human capital.

The creation of this asset occurs not only during the selection of personnel; even in the normal daily work of a manager, this process also takes place. The effectiveness of formation is determined by the correct choice of means and methods used by the employer.

Scheme 3. Human capital management mechanism.

The most important means of forming and developing human capital:

1. investment;
2. stimulating the disclosure of human qualities that contribute to the increase in human capital; they are associated with obtaining an education, maintaining a healthy lifestyle and developing intellectual potential;
3. creation of a motivating remuneration system, which involves setting wages in accordance with experience and length of service;
4. establishing values ​​implemented in management processes;
5. assignment of qualifications in accordance with the level of professionalism and ability to perform effectively;
6. manifestation of human capital in the information environment; the competence factor directly depends on the provision of information, the functional content of the activity, as well as directly on the education of the employee;
7. development of all levels of culture: general, organizational, corporate and others;
8. proper organization of activities that contributes to the implementation of a creative approach, stimulation of educational activities, and encouragement of self-development.

What indicators exist for assessing the development of human capital in an organization?

The factors that we examined in this article affect the development of human capital as a whole. They are all interconnected and form a single system. The process of formation and development of human capital can be facilitated by organizing a monitoring system for this asset, which is created in accordance with management priorities used in the enterprise, as well as employee evaluation methods.

In most cases, enterprises use the method of calculating direct personnel costs. Direct costs include wages, taxes on employees, costs of labor protection and improvement of its conditions, as well as costs of advanced training and training of workers. It is easy to guess that the sum of all these costs is not an indicator of the accumulated amount of human capital, because, in addition to all the above activities, capital carriers themselves can form capital through self-education and creativity.

Another method used is competitive assessment. The company creates optimal conditions for employees. People should strive to work for a company that offers more amenities and benefits to employees than all other competing organizations. With this technique, it is important to assess the costs and expected damage to the company when an employee leaves. It is undesirable for such investments to have turnover. It is especially important that people remain at the enterprise during a crisis, because a way out of a difficult situation is possible with the presence of human capital and even its increase, which does not at all imply the recruitment of new employees.

A number of enterprises use the method of prospective assessment of the value of human capital. Its essence is that the dynamics of value over a period of five, ten or even twenty years is taken into account. The method is quite effective, especially suitable for long-term large projects related to innovation. As development progresses, the value of individual employees changes. Sometimes people achieve particularly high results, and sometimes they quit, which results in major losses for the organization. These factors also need to be taken into account.

Strategic human resource management:

• SWOT analysis;
• action plan to realize opportunities and neutralize threats to business;
• personnel policy;
• personnel management models;
• personnel indicators in the balanced scorecard.

SWOT analysis of human resources: an example

Strengths	Weaknesses
Opportunities for career growth for employees due to company development. Employees' desire for development. Positive image of the company in the market.	High turnover of basic personnel. Lack of uniform policies, procedures and rules in the field of personnel management. Weak communications in the company between brands; brands and management companies.
Possibilities	Threats
Attracting highly qualified personnel. Work with educational institutions (business schools, universities, colleges). Formation of uniform policies, procedures and rules in the field of personnel management. Reducing staff turnover through the introduction of adaptation systems, mentoring, apprenticeships, and prevention of layoffs. Creation of a training center and the foundations of a self-learning organization.	An increase in the number of potential employers means an outflow of qualified personnel (including to competitors). Increased demand and limited supply in the market for qualified personnel (demographic situation). An increase in market wages means an increase in personnel costs.

How effectively an organization uses human resources can be judged by the following key indicators:

1. the employee’s contribution to the organization’s performance (to making a profit per employee, to achieving a certain share of sales, the level of gross margin);
2. employee expenses; for assessment, the ratio of human resource costs to total costs, as well as costs per employee, is calculated;
3. the state of human resources (level of education, competence, as well as the level of staff turnover, etc.);
4. staff involvement (it reflects the degree of employee satisfaction with the conditions provided).

• How a leader can earn authority in a team: 9 qualities

Problems of human capital development in Russia

If we consider human capital in general, we can consider it the engine of the economy, a factor in the development of the institution of family and society as a whole. It consists of able-bodied people with education, as well as tools of intellectual and managerial work located in a certain habitat and performing a labor function. If there is human capital, a country can maintain a certain level in the global economy, ensuring competitiveness in the markets. This is of particular importance in the context of globalization, and is also an indicator of the activities of government authorities.

Human capital has value in itself, but its quality becomes increasingly important in a competitive environment. How to evaluate quality? To do this, it is necessary to determine the level of literacy and education, as well as life expectancy of the population, standard of living and the state of medical care. To this it is worth adding the GDP per capita indicator. All these elements are combined into a formula for calculating the Human Capital Development Index (HDI). About 25 years ago, out of 187 countries in the world, Russia ranked 23rd on the list, and according to the results of a 2013 study, our country was in 55th place. This is an inevitable regression, which can be explained by a decrease in investment in such areas as education, culture, science and human health.

It is important not only to develop the professional qualities of specialists. In the development of human capital, it is necessary to engage in the formation of a new culture of behavior of citizens, and this process should begin from a very early age. The development of culture continues throughout life, no matter where a person works - in the civil service or in the private sector of the economy. These tasks were formulated for themselves by the participants of the Open Government session “Human capital is the main asset of the economy”, held as part of the St. Petersburg International Economic Forum.

The Minister of the Russian Federation for Open Government, Mikhail Abyzov, said that today in our country there is no system of personal development that meets modern requirements, and without it it is impossible to talk about more or less high positions in the list of economically successful states. The Soviet Union had such a system, but it no longer corresponds to reality. We need to look to the future and develop new mechanisms. Nowadays, everything is not as successful with school education as we would like; children do not develop the qualities of leaders. According to statistics, 70% of schools in the Russian Federation are rural, more than 40% of teachers work in them and at least 25% of them do not have higher education. But we simply don’t have the tools to develop leadership.

Chaotic development of human capital does not imply quality results. This system requires configuration and management so that a person's skills are adequate to the requirements of the modern world. In our country, the ability to organize the development of human capital has been lost. If we previously had a planned economy, it had its own principles of adjustment - they were based on a system of priorities for economic growth. Man was seen as a means for economic development. But in the new reality the system does not exist at all.

Instead of developing human capital, there is an increase in ambition. What do we see these days? People with higher education work in unskilled positions (salespeople, secretaries). More and more young professionals are experiencing problems finding a job. Moving to other regions is also difficult.

It is planned to develop an electronic system that will allow an employer to select a graduate of an educational institution who meets the parameters necessary to occupy a specific position. You will not have to select based on your resume; you will only need to evaluate the student’s academic performance and his scientific and social activities.

In human capital development, basic education is important, but it is neither rare nor in short supply now. Nowadays, it is much more important that a person has leadership qualities. It is not ordinary performers, but leaders who help the company achieve success. That is why the main focus now is on developing leaders. In particular, the Open Government conducts training seminars for members of the Government of the Russian Federation at the Sberbank Corporate University.

The development of science and technology shows that the main engine of the economy is human capital. GDP growth should be invested precisely in human development, in improving the quality of his life, in caring for health, and then we can hope for a transition to an innovative economy and a knowledge economy.

Let us recall the words of Nobel Prize laureate in economics Simon Kuznets, written in 1934: “For a scientific and technological breakthrough in the country, the necessary starting human capital must be created (accumulated). Otherwise, a false start occurs.”

State funds should be directed not only to the fight against corruption, but also to finance science, healthcare, education, as well as the protection of motherhood and childhood.

Table 1. Age structure of the population and dependency load

Age groups of the population, thousand people.	2002 (census)	2007	2010	2020***	2030***
Younger than able-bodied
In able-bodied
Older than able-bodied
Whole population
Younger than able-bodied
In able-bodied
Older than able-bodied
Whole population

*Men aged 16–59 years + women aged 16–54 years

**For every 1000 people of working age there are disabled people (children + pensioners)

*** 2020 and 2030 – Rosstat forecast.

Information about the experts

Marat Nagumanov, director of the research and production company "Packer", Oktyabrsky (Bashkortostan). NPF Packer LLC. Scope of activity: design, production and maintenance of packer-anchor equipment and well assemblies for operation, intensification and overhaul of oil and gas wells. Territory: head office – in Oktyabrsky (Bashkortostan); service centers and representative offices - in Muravlenko (Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug), Nizhnevartovsk and Nyagan (KhMAO - Yugra), Ufa, Buzuluk (Orenburg Region), Almetyevsk and Leninogorsk (Tatarstan), Izhevsk. Number of staff: more than 700. Subscriber to the General Director magazine: since 2007.

Sergey Kapustin Graduated from the Belarusian Polytechnic Institute (now – Belarusian National Technical University). Since 1995 - co-owner and general director of the logistics company AsstrA. Since 2003 - in current position. GC "STA Logistics" Field of activity: transport logistics. Territory: Russian head office - in Moscow, branch - in St. Petersburg; representative offices in Minsk and Vilnius. Number of employees: 165. Annual turnover: 32 million euros (in 2012).

The concept of human capital is considered in a broad and narrow sense. In a narrow sense, one of the forms of human capital is education. It was called human because this form becomes part of a person, and capital is due to the fact that it represents a source of future satisfaction or future earnings, or both. In a broad sense, human capital is formed through investments (long-term investments) in a person in the form of costs for education and training of workers in production, health care, migration and searching for information about prices and incomes.
Human capital is defined as a special type of investment, a set of costs for the development of human reproductive potential, improving the quality and functioning of the workforce. Human capital objects usually include general and specialized knowledge, skills, and accumulated experience.
L. Thurow, who summarized the first studies of human capital, gives the following definition as an initial concept: “The human capital of people represents their ability to produce goods and services.” Among the abilities, L. Thurow identifies the genetically basic economic ability. Economic ability, in his view, is not just another productive investment that an individual possesses. Economic ability affects the performance of all other investments. This implies an important point about the need for unity of life activity as a source of formation and accumulation of human capital. As L. Thurow believed, consumption, production and investment are joint products of human activity to maintain life.
In turn, I. Ben-Poret determines that human capital can be considered as a special fund, the functions of which are the production of labor services in generally accepted units of measurement and which in this capacity is similar to any machine as a representative of material capital.
However, human abilities as a capital good are significantly different from the physical properties of machines. The analogies between human capital and physical capital are interesting and exciting, notes L. Thurow, however, human capital cannot be analyzed in the same way as physical capital. F. Machlup proposes to distinguish between primary and improved abilities. Unimproved labor must be distinguished from improved labor, which has become more productive due to investments that increase the physical and mental capabilities of a person. Such improvements constitute human capital.
MM. Kritsky defined human capital as a universally specific form of human life activity, assimilating previous forms - consumer and productive, adequate to the eras of the appropriating and producing economy, and realized as the result of the historical movement of human society to its modern state. Recognition of the universality, historicity and specificity of human capital allows us to limit the time frame and socio-economic conditions for the existence of this phenomenon.
Human activity is related to both consumption and production. The source and form of enrichment of a person in his life is intellectual activity. Human capital, notes L. G. Simkina, is the main element of the modern innovative economic system. Since intellectual activity is a source of increased consumption, its expanded reproduction is the reproduction of the basic economic relationship - human capital as self-enrichment of life activity. Disclosure of the absolute and relative forms of enrichment of life through the elevation of needs and abilities allows us to determine the historically specific form of human capital. The productive form of human capital appears as an organic unity of two components - direct labor and intellectual activity. These parts can act either as functions of the same subject, or as organizational and economic forms of different subjects entering into an exchange of activities with each other.
Exploring socio-economic processes, V.N. Kostyuk defines human capital as a person’s individual ability that allows him to operate successfully in conditions of uncertainty. It includes rational and intuitive components as part of human capital. Their interaction can allow the owner of human capital to achieve success where high qualifications and professionalism alone are not enough. Additionally, talent is required, which requires separate remuneration. For this reason, in a competitive market, the success of the owner of human capital in a certain type of activity can be rewarded significantly higher than wages in the corresponding industry.
When studying the mechanisms of functioning of the social and labor sphere, I.G. Korogodin defines human capital as a set of knowledge, skills, abilities, and other human abilities, formed, accumulated and improved as a result of investment in the process of his life, necessary for specific purposeful activities and contributing to the growth of the productive power of labor. He believes that the most important criterion expressing the essence of capital is its accumulation. In all cases, capital is the accumulated funds (monetary, material, information, etc.) from which people expect to derive income. People increase their capacity as producers and consumers by investing in themselves, and a significant increase in investment in a person changes the structure of his income. Therefore, human capital is not the innate, but the accumulated properties of a person. A person cannot be born with ready-made capital. It must be created in the life process of each individual. And innate properties can only act as a factor contributing to the fruitful formation of human capital. It is necessary to use a functional approach that characterizes a phenomenon not only from the point of view of its internal structure, but also from the point of view of its functional purpose, i.e. intended use. Therefore, firstly, human capital is a set of skills, knowledge, and abilities that a person possesses, an accumulated stock of skills, knowledge, and abilities that are rationally used by a person in one or another sphere of social reproduction and contribute to the growth of labor productivity and production. Secondly, the rational use of this reserve in the form of highly productive activities naturally leads to an increase in the employee’s earnings (income). Thirdly, an increase in income stimulates, interests, motivates (encourages) a person through investments that may relate to health, education, etc., to increase, accumulate a new stock of skills and knowledge in order to effectively apply it again in the future.
Human capital has specific features:
. in modern conditions, human capital is the main value of society and the main factor of economic growth;
. the formation of human capital requires significant costs from the individual himself and the entire society;
. human capital in the form of skills and abilities is a certain reserve, i.e. accumulated;
. human capital physically wears out, changes its value economically and can be depreciated;
. human capital differs from physical capital in terms of liquidity;
. human capital is inseparable from its carrier - a living human personality;
. Regardless of the sources of formation, which can be state, family, private, etc., the use of human capital and income generation are controlled by the person himself.

Formation of human capital

Human capital comes in various forms.
First form. Living capital includes knowledge embodied in a person.
Second form. Non-living capital is created when knowledge is embodied in physical, material forms.
Third form. Institutional capital consists of living and non-living capital and is associated with the production of services that satisfy the collective needs of society. It includes all governmental and non-governmental institutions that promote the effective use of living and non-living capital (educational, financial institutions).
Thus, in terms of formation and use, human capital can be distinguished as private, or special, and general. Specialized human capital includes skills and knowledge acquired as a result of specialized training and are of interest only to the organization where they were acquired. General human capital represents knowledge and experience that can be in demand in various spheres of human activity.

Types of human capital

From the point of view of the nature of promoting the economic well-being of society, a distinction is made between consumer and productive, illiquid (non-alienated) and liquid (alienated) human capital.
Consumer capital creates a flow of directly consumable services, and thus contributes to social utility. This can be a creative and educational activity. The result of such activity is expressed in the provision of consumer services to the human consumer, which lead to the emergence of new ways to satisfy needs or increase the efficiency of existing ways to satisfy them. Productive capital creates a flow of services, the consumption of which contributes to social utility. In this case, we mean scientific and educational activities that have direct practical application specifically in production (the creation of means of production, technologies, production services and products).
Non-alienated (illiquid) human capital includes: health capital (biophysiological, physical, psychophysiological, mental); cultural and moral capital (ethics, traditions, customs); labor capital (experience, skills, abilities); intellectual capital (creativity, education); organizational and entrepreneurial capital (enterprise, business qualities, innovation, frugality, etc.).
Alienated (liquid) human capital includes: social capital (social and labor relations); brand capital (client capital) - enterprises where the basis of relationships is a “portfolio of contracts with clients”; organizational capital (innovation, protection of commercial rights and intellectual property); structural capital (organizational structure
management and costs for its formation and improvement).

Classification of human capital

Classification of types of human capital is carried out on different grounds and for different purposes.
The purpose of the classification is to substantiate targeted programs as the basis for the formation and accumulation of human potential.
The classification of human capital can be represented as a structure of its types by levels and affiliation (ownership) (Fig. 1).
This classification of types of human capital allows us to evaluate human capital at the level of an individual (micro level—individual human capital), a separate enterprise or group of enterprises (meso level—human capital of an organization, firm) and the public—the state as a whole (macro level—national human capital). In the structure of individual human capital, one can distinguish health capital, cultural and moral capital, labor, intellectual and organizational and entrepreneurial capital.

Rice. 1. Classification of human capital by levels and ownership (ownership)
Health capital. Physical strength, endurance, performance, increasing the period of active work are necessary for every person in any field of professional activity. The reduction (reduction) of health capital affects the demographic situation, which can currently be assessed as quite complex. The population of Russia decreased by 6.4 million people. with 148.2 million people. on January 1, 1991 to 141.8 million people. as of January 1, 2010 and continues to decline.
Demographic indicators for the future make it possible to assess possible quantitative and structural changes in health potential in the first quarter of the 21st century. (Table 2).
Table 2 Expected demographic indicators in Russia


In general, the demographic forecast shows that even in the case of an optimistic scenario for economic development and significant investments in the social sphere, the population reduction by 2025 will be 7%. Morbidity, disability, and premature mortality reduce life expectancy. Thus, in 2004, the life expectancy of men in Russia was 59 years, which nationwide was a loss of about 33.4 million man-years of work or 1.1 million able-bodied men. The country's economic losses this year amounted to more than 68.7 billion rubles.
Economic damage from disease can be determined for each enterprise. According to statistics, for every 100 people who go to medical institutions per year, there are 67 patients. Lost work time due to illness averages 20 days per year. This means that the employee does not create products and does not participate in ensuring profit. He needs to pay sick leave and bear the costs of replacing him at production.
To stimulate the growth of health capital, many companies use bonuses for vacation pay (medical pay) for employees who have not been sick during the year. The use of a voluntary health insurance system at the expense of the employer is of stimulating importance, taking into account the real savings in working time due to illness compared to average or standard levels.
Cultural and moral capital means the totality of intellectual abilities, education, skills, moral qualities, and qualifications of an individual, which are used in the process of social and labor activity and at the same time legitimize the possession of status and power.
The cultural characteristics of an individual have a value assessment: social - qualitative and quantitative characteristics of knowledge, skills, qualifications, moral qualities, abilities, way of life, image, social connections of the individual; economic - the totality of costs associated with the development of the cultural characteristics of an individual.
A person’s use of his cultural and moral potential in the process of social and labor actions realizes it as human capital, allowing a person to become a subject of labor and occupy a professional niche corresponding to his cultural level, gain professional status, access to additional income exceeding the costs associated with the reproduction of a worker and his family.
Only under certain conditions of active use do cultural values ​​embodied in a person change his professional status and turn into cultural capital. Cultural use values ​​turn into cultural capital only when they are embedded in such social relations in which they become a source of power for their owner over other participants in social interaction. Therefore, manifestations of human properties in the form of cultural and moral capital are carried out within the framework of the entire set of social relations of social reproduction through a system of rational, meaningful human action.
Thus, high human culture and morality are constantly needed in management and production, as well as qualifications and intelligence. Medical deontology, pedagogical and business ethics, the code of honor of managers and employees, labor and everyday morality create a healthy moral and psychological climate in teams, increase labor productivity and income. The reputation of an employee and the image of a company are just as important for attracting customers and investments as the purely business performance of a business is important. Business honor, conscience, decency, and responsibility are highly valued in civilized business relations.
Labor capital is embodied in the labor of qualified workers, for whom it depends on the use of modern technologies. The higher the level of mechanization, automation, and computerization, the higher the requirements for labor capital. The more complex the work, the higher the requirements for the qualifications, knowledge, experience and responsibility of the employee. As Academician S. G. Strumilin noted, skilled labor is 2-3 times more productive than simple labor. Qualification itself is an integral part of labor capital and represents the degree of professional suitability of the employee.
At the beginning of the 21st century. Russia's economically active population was 71 million people, of which 64.7 million people were employed in the economy. or 91.1%, and the unemployed - 6.3 million people. The employment situation of labor resources in the period 2000–2010. remained relatively stable in terms of worker labor supply.
The period 2011 to 2025 is characterized by an absolute and relative reduction in the working age population. In general, during this period the working-age population is expected to decline by 14.3–15.5 million people. (Table 3).
Table 3
Labor resources for the future (share of population, %)


From the table Figure 3 shows that the load on the working-age population will have a wave-like nature over time. The increase in workload due to older people will be offset by a decrease in the population younger than the working age population. This situation indicates an aging population and the emergence of additional social and economic problems. In addition, there is significant differentiation of employment in different sectors of the economy, i.e. Some sectors have jobs available, while others have a surplus. One of the reasons for the uneven employment of human resources is that the training system in educational institutions does not fully meet the requirements of the economy. Another reason is significant differentiation in wages, which contributes to the outflow of workers from low-paid sectors of the economy. The third is the reduction and liquidation of production in the agro-industrial complex, light industry, mechanical engineering, etc. Based on this, structural unemployment may persist in Russia for a long time if an effective system of training and retraining of personnel is not created in accordance with the needs of the economy.
Labor capital is formed throughout life as labor skills, abilities, experience and, most importantly, education accumulate. Education is the main way to reproduce qualified workers.
Intellectual capital (Latin intellectus - thinking ability, perception) is inherent only to a person who not only has high thinking abilities, but also subtly feels and perceives the beauty of the external and internal world of a person.
Intelligence is the system of all the cognitive abilities of an individual (sensation, perception, memory, representation, thinking, imagination) used to solve problems and achieve goals.
Intellectual, creative activity is a unique attribute of the human mind, ingenuity, and ingenuity. A product of intellectual activity is patented and secured by copyright as the exclusive property of the author, who has the right to determine the directions and forms of its economic use. Intellectual property objects are involved in economic turnover as intangible assets of enterprises and increase the income of the company and the owners of these assets.
Talented, highly qualified scientists and scientists receive high incomes from intellectual property. In the modern world, people with a large amount of knowledge and information occupy more advantageous places in labor and social life.
The concept of intellectual capital and the related concept of intellectual property are inseparable from the new economy. These are the most essential components that most identify the new economy. At the stage of technological development, they manifest themselves with such intensity that allows us to speak about the fundamental difference between the new economy and the industrial economy, which relies on natural raw materials and the labor of the so-called industrial production personnel.
Thus, intellectual capital implies the sum of the knowledge of the human resources of an organization, enterprise, company that ensures their competitiveness. A person accumulates amounts of knowledge through constant education.
Education is given special attention in any modern society. When investing in education, it is necessary to remember that these investments are many times more effective than investments in any other factor of production. For example, in the USA, the growth of the nation's education provides 15% of the increase in national income. Considering that 6-7% of GDP is spent on education, it is clear that investments in education are highly effective.
The planned increase in the number of students in the professional system gives grounds for optimistic assessments related to the reproduction of intellectual capital and human potential in general (Table 4).
The increasing role of creativity in production is evidenced by the growing share of specialists in industries and enterprises. At the beginning of the 21st century. 11 million specialists with higher education and 10.3 million mid-level specialists worked in sectors of the national economy.
Table 4
Number of students in Russia (million people)


The trend in the relationship between education and a person’s income is approximately the same in all countries. This suggests that at present it is not only profitable to receive education, but also profitable to invest money in it, since education, in addition to everything else, directly affects labor productivity and production efficiency in general.
Organizational and entrepreneurial capital. The work of an entrepreneur and manager has significant specifics compared to other types of work. Running a business or managing requires entrepreneurship and business savvy, innovation, organizational skills and high responsibility, a sense of frugality and economy, the ability to take reasonable risks, energy and willpower.
Entrepreneurial privileges - ownership of enormous resources, know-how, trade secrets - make it possible to transform them into a special type of human capital - organizational and entrepreneurial capital.
Entrepreneurship and management are carried out not only by top managers, but also by middle and line managers. The Japanese experience testifies to the high creative activity of workers in quality circles. Western companies widely use intrapreneurship systems. All this indicates that entrepreneurial abilities are possessed not only by a narrow elite layer of company owners, but also by hired managers, specialists, and workers.
The level of entrepreneurial abilities is embodied in the amount of own and controlled capital. This allows you to distinguish small, medium and large businesses. The quality of entrepreneurial abilities is assessed by the efficiency of capital use and the sustainability of progressive business development. Intervals of profitability of capital investments and the rate of economic growth of organizations indicate the real capitalization of the organizational and entrepreneurial abilities of employees.
Organizational and entrepreneurial capital is one of the most promising and important types of human capital. Investments in its development are increasingly productive. Not all people have entrepreneurial spirit. The ability to manage, organize, create and conduct a successful business (business) is a complex ability that is studied by psychologists, sociologists, and economists. In developed countries, the share of entrepreneurs in the adult population reaches 7-10%, in Russia - less than 2%.
All these types of human capital have one thing in common. All of them are inalienable from man. However, the components of human capital are heterogeneous, i.e. in the structure of this capital, those that can be alienated from the human personality are distinguished.
Social capital can be defined as a certain set of social relations that minimizes the transaction costs of information throughout the economy. K. Marx believed that capital freely appropriates the achievements of science, as well as the division of labor. The division of labor as an element of the social organization of production is an example of social capital, the effect of the use of which is appropriated by business entities.
The elements of social organization include social norms, trust, so-called social networks - a set of public informal associations, interpersonal connections (personal, family, business). Their task is to create conditions for coordination and cooperation of labor for mutual benefit.
Social capital is associated with the fact that each person is embedded in a system of social relations. This is the capital of communication, cooperation, interaction, mutual trust and mutual assistance, formed in the space of interpersonal (interpersonal) economic and labor relations. Dialogue and openness allow people to learn from each other. This process can be characterized as social learning. Practically human intellectual advantages consist in knowledge that is transmitted by society and acquired in the process of socialization and integration into the system of social relations. This knowledge characterizes social qualifications.
Asocial capital is knowledge that is transferred and developed through relationships between employees, partners, suppliers and customers. It is created through the exchange of knowledge, and this requires the existence of a common organizational environment in which such exchange can freely and continuously take place. Such an environment, as M. Armstrong notes, is more likely to be found in “borderless” organizations, where the focus is on horizontal processes, teamwork and target groups, which allows the transfer of knowledge in the process of professional activity. Social capital is human capital capable of realizing its potential.
Social capital has a number of specific features. Firstly, it is always a product of organized interaction, so it has a social rather than an individual nature. A. Porter notes that economic capital is in people's bank accounts, human capital is in people's heads, social capital is inherent in the structure of their relationships. To have social capital, a person must be connected to others, and these others are the actual source of his advantage.
Secondly, social capital as an element of the functioning of a socially organized social system cannot be privately owned, i.e. is a public good. Despite the fact that social capital is not the property of an individual company, it is included in the structure of the company's assets and is used by each enterprise to the extent possible.
Thus, the accumulated social capital of Russia consists, as noted by V.A. Skvortsov, forms of cooperation, collectivism, conciliarity. An example of negative social capital is participation in criminal communities, abuse of an exclusive position, etc. Thus, all those factors that create the possibility of the emergence and development of social connections and ensure their preservation are related to social capital. Thus, the natural resources and technologies used by the company may not change, but its social capital may grow as the external relations and image of the company develop.
Brand equity. An alienable type of human capital can be considered customer or brand capital. The activity of a company with customer capital becomes a socio-economic activity, and the company itself can be called a “meta-enterprise”, involving the user in the joint creation and improvement of consumer values, because the buyer acts as the final judge of all products and services created by the company.
Back in 1993, E. Grove formulated one of the necessary conditions for the survival of an imperfect competitor in a highly competitive environment. Leading corporations, and after them the rest, in conditions of imperfect competition, are forced to produce not just specific goods and services, but complex social complexes such as “material products and services + their consumers + their preferences”, which allow increasing demand according to the principle of positive feedback, when an increase in demand increases demand. Once a product has captured a significant portion of the market, the public has a strong incentive to continue purchasing variations of it.
An example of the effective use of client capital is the Windows operating system, which is installed on most computers. Therefore, programmers tend to develop programs primarily for this system, and then for the less common OS/2 system. In turn, the abundance of new application programs increases the attractiveness of Windows in the eyes of computer buyers, resulting in an increasing positive feedback effect. Even a more advanced product cannot break this connection if it enters the market too late. At the same time, this connection can be strengthened by increasing sales volume in one way or another.
The general rule for many companies should be the principle: give (give away for free) to the consumer some product with which he will use paid services for a long time. In accordance with this principle, the United States has already begun selective free distribution of personal computers to the population. The desire to increase customer capital transforms imperfect competition of individual producers into an innovative and competitive community of producers and consumers, affecting the entire complex of social relations.
The orientation of firms towards future profits forces them to take part in solving social problems, transforms them from purely economic into socio-economic subjects of market relations. This is facilitated by the activity of such entities as consumer societies, ethnic minorities, representatives of various subcultures, aimed at obtaining representation on the boards of companies. The existence of the client capital category is especially evident for insurance companies and other financial enterprises, where the basis of activity is a portfolio of contracts with clients, which determines the scale, structure and dynamics of activity. In Russia, the brand capital of such large corporations as RAO UES of Russia, RAO Gazprom, RKS, NPO Energia, etc. is still in its infancy.
Structural capital. The competitive environment in which firms operate in a modern economy is constantly changing under the influence of innovation. The rapid pace of such change complicates the conditions under which a firm can succeed. One of these conditions is that the company has significant structural capital. Structural capital is the ability of a firm to manage its organizational structure, adapting to changing market conditions and at the same time changing it in a direction beneficial to the firm. Such capital is greater, the greater the freedom of the company’s employees—the carriers of human capital. And the more valuable it is, the higher the uncertainty and competitiveness of the environment in which the company operates. Effective structural capital of a firm can only arise where ideas are valued more than position on the hierarchical ladder.
An example of a company with large structural capital is the world leader in the production of microprocessors, Intel. To cover its costs and increase profits, the company must sell more and more processors with each new series. This situation is typical for any imperfect competitor. Current costs are rising so rapidly that they threaten to wipe out all future profits and render the corporation unprofitable. To prevent this from happening, the new value must grow faster than costs. This makes the existence of the company dependent on rapidly changing consumer preferences. If the market is saturated and sufficiently competitive, then the stronger these preferences, the greater the innovative added value, and the weaker these preferences, the smaller it is. Added value disappears when a product or service loses its attractiveness in the eyes of consumers.
Organizational capital, at its core, is the systematized and formalized competence of a company plus systems that enhance its creative effectiveness, as well as organizational capabilities aimed at creating product and value. Organizational capital includes:
. firstly, innovation capital (protected commercial rights, intellectual property and other intangible assets and values), which ensures the company's ability to renew itself;
. secondly, the capital of processes (production, sales, after-sales service, etc.), activities that form the cost of the product.
Organizational capital consists of the knowledge possessed by the organization, not its individual employees. It can be considered embedded knowledge (institutionalized knowledge) that can be stored using information technology in accessible and easily expandable databases. Organizational capital may include certain information that is recorded in databases, in instructions and standards for performing procedures, or tacit knowledge that can be mastered, exchanged or, to the extent possible, codified.
Any processes or procedures in an organization are created based on the knowledge of individuals. As Davenport and Prusak note, in theory, this embedded knowledge is independent of the people who develop it—and is therefore relatively stable—an individual may disappear, but this will not reduce the stock of embedded knowledge in the company. Organizational capital is created by people. But at the same time, it belongs to the company and can be developed through knowledge management.
Thus, with the existence of a large number of definitions, forms and types, human capital is the most important component of modern productive capital, which is represented by a rich stock of knowledge inherent in humans, developed abilities, determined by intellectual and creative potential. Basic

Emergence human capital theories was due to the need for a deeper understanding of the action of factors of production, in particular the nature of the unusually high share of changes in total output, not explained by the quantitative increase in the factors of production used - labor and capital, as well as the need to offer a universal interpretation of the phenomenon of income inequality.

The economic approach to human behavior became widespread thanks to two Nobel laureates - T. Schultz and G. Becker. The concept was introduced into scientific circulation "human capital" as a set of qualities, skills, abilities and knowledge of a person used by him for production (to generate income) or consumer purposes. This capital is called human, because it is embodied in the person’s personality; it is capital because it serves as a source of either future income or future consumption, or both.

Human capital, like physical capital, is a durable good, but it can become obsolete, physically wear out, and it can become obsolete even before its physical wear occurs; its value can rise and fall depending on changes in the supply of complementary (mutually complementary) production factors and in the demand for their joint products.

The difference between human capital and physical capital is its inseparability from the carrier. The carrier of human capital itself cannot be the subject of purchase and sale, at least in modern society. It can only be rented, i.e. engage in work under an employment contract.

The following are distinguished: types of human capital.

Total human capital– this is knowledge and skills, regardless of where they were acquired, they can be used in other workplaces.

Specific human capital – it is knowledge and skills that have value where they are acquired.

The production of general human capital is ensured by a system of formal education, including general and special education, which improves the quality, level and stock of human knowledge. Specific human capital is formed by spending on training to train workers directly on the job.

Human capital can be positive or negative.

Positive human capital defined as the accumulated human capital that provides a useful return on investment.

Negative human capital- part of the accumulated human capital that does not provide any useful return on investment.

The accumulation of human capital depends on the human potential available in a given society. To evaluate it, the currently widely used human development index(HDI), which characterizes different aspects of the development of society. The HDI of a country or region reflects the three leading factors of life: income, longevity, and education.

Human capital theory

The theory of human capital is based on the achievements of institutional theory, neoclassical theory, neo-Keynesianism and other economic theories that recognize the fact that people represent the same capital for society as machines. Human capital theory states that where the quality and quantity of human capital is higher, financial and physical capital are concentrated accordingly. And where low-quality human capital has been formed over centuries, even a large amount of it will not help.

A special role in the development of the theory of human capital belongs to the American scientist, Nobel Prize winner G. Becker, whose contribution is to strengthen its theoretical justification from the standpoint of microeconomic analysis and significantly expand the possibilities of its practical application.

Historical background

Gary Becker born in 1930 in Pottstown (Pennsylvania). After graduating from Princeton University in 1951, he worked at Princeton and Columbia universities. Received his doctorate in Chicago in 1955. After 1969, he was a professor at the University of Chicago and a fellow at the Hoover Institution for Revolution, War and Peace at Stanford University. As a professor of economics and sociology at the University of Chicago in 1992. Becker was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics for "extending the scope of microeconomic analysis to a range of aspects of human behavior and interaction, including non-market behavior."

G. Becker became the founder of a whole family of new sections of economic theory - the economics of discrimination, the theory of human capital, the economics of crime, household economics, etc. Becker’s research in the field of economic analysis of the family was called the “new theory of consumption” ( new theory of consumption).

G. Becker developed the microeconomic foundations of the theory of human capital in his fundamental work in 1962. "Human Capital". The model formulated in it became the basis for all subsequent research in this area. In Becker’s view, any worker can be considered as a combination of one unit of simple labor and a certain amount of “human capital” embodied in it; accordingly, his wages (income) are a combination of the market price of one hundred simple labor and income from investments made in a person.

The totality of direct monetary costs for education and income lost during the time spent on training is investments in human capital. Becker justified the possibility of calculating the profitability of such investments both from the standpoint of an individual and society as a whole, considering this process by analogy with rates of return on capital.

To assess the economic efficiency of education for the worker himself, additional income from higher education is determined as follows: the income of workers with secondary general education was subtracted from the income of those who graduated from college. Education is profitable for a worker if the difference between additional income and the real cost of expenses is positive.

Thus, return rates act as a regulator of the distribution of investments between different types and levels of education. High rates of return indicate underinvestment, low rates indicate overinvestment.

American scientist, Nobel Prize laureate T. Schultz1, studying the problems of economic recovery after the war, came to the conclusion that the speed of recovery in different countries was related to the health and education of the population. Schultz proved that human capital has the necessary characteristics of a productive nature and is able to accumulate and reproduce. Education makes people more productive, and good healthcare keeps investment in education and the ability to produce.

T. Schultz and G. Becker are credited with popularizing the idea of ​​human capital; their efforts gave impetus to numerous studies and initiated active efforts to motivate investment in vocational and technical education by international financial institutions.

Human capital- a set of knowledge, skills and abilities used to meet the diverse needs of an individual and society as a whole.

Human capital in a broad sense, it is an intensive productive factor of economic development, development of society and family, including the educated part of the labor force, knowledge, tools of intellectual and managerial work, living environment and labor activity, ensuring the effective and rational functioning of the human capital as a productive factor of development.

Briefly: Human capital- this is intelligence, health, knowledge, high-quality and productive work and quality of life.

Human capital is the main factor in the formation and development of the innovation economy and the knowledge economy as the next highest stage of development.

Use the classification of human capital:

1. Individual human capital.
2. Human capital of the company.
3. National human capital.

Human capital in developed countries accounts for 70 to 80% of national wealth. In Russia it is about 50%.

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✪ Lecture by Isak Frumin “Human capital 2.0”

✪ Presentation “Human Capital 2.0”

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✪ Human capital and social policy

Subtitles

Problems of human capital in the modern world

According to I. G. Shestakov, “In the modern global world, thanks to universal education and universal testing, we find ourselves in a situation where all precious human resources are brought to the surface, for general review, choice and plunder. We are talking not only about brain drain, but about the drain of the gene pool as a whole. In these conditions, Russia must think about its most important resource - human capital. If earlier Russia was represented by peasants, among whom the nuggets of human capital were hidden, then at present there are almost no resources.”

Background

Elements of the theory of human capital (HC) have existed since ancient times, when the first knowledge and education system were formed.

In the scientific literature, the concept of human capital (Human Capital) appeared in publications of the second half of the 20th century in the works of American economists Theodore Schultz and Gary Becker (1992). For creating the foundations of the theory of human capital (HC), they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics - Theodore Schultz in 1979, Gary Becker in 1992. Simon (Semyon) also made a significant contribution to the creation of the theory of HC. Kuznets, who received the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1971

The theory of human capital is based on the achievements of institutional theory, neoclassical theory, neo-Keynesianism and other particular economic theories. Its appearance was a response from economics and related sciences to the demand of the real economy and life. The problem of in-depth understanding of the role of man and the accumulated results of his intellectual activity on the pace and quality of development of society and the economy has arisen. The impetus for the creation of the theory of human capital was the statistical data on the growth of the economies of developed countries, which exceeded calculations based on taking into account classical growth factors. Analysis of the real processes of development and growth in modern conditions led to the approval of human capital as the main productive and social factor in the development of the modern economy and society.

Contributions to the development of the modern theory of human capital were made by T. Schultz, G. Becker, E. Denison, R. Solow, J. Kendrick, S. Kuznets, S. Fabrikant, I. Fisher, R. Lucas and other economists, sociologists and historians .

The concept of human capital is a natural development and generalization of the concepts of human factor and human resource, but human capital is a broader economic category.

The economic category “human capital” was formed gradually, and at the first stage it was limited to a person’s knowledge and ability to work. Moreover, for a long time, human capital was considered only a social factor of development, that is, a cost factor, from the point of view of economic theory. It was believed that investments in upbringing and education were unproductive and costly. In the second half of the 20th century, attitudes towards human capital and education gradually changed dramatically.

Broad definition of human capital

The concept of human capital (Human Capital) appeared in publications of the second half of the 20th century in the works of American economists Theodore Schultz “The Theory of Human Capital” (1960) and his follower Gary Becker “Human Capital: Theoretical and Empirical Analysis” (1964). For the development of the theory of human capital (HC) in 1992, G. Becker was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics. A native of Russia, Simon (Semion) Kuznets, who received the Nobel Prize in Economics for 1971, also made a significant contribution to the creation of the theory of Cheka.

The founders of the theory of human capital (HC) gave it a narrow definition, which expanded over time and continues to expand, including all new components of HC. As a result, Cheka has turned into a complex intensive factor in the development of the modern economy - the knowledge economy.

Currently, on the basis of the theory and practice of Cheka, a successful development paradigm for the United States and leading European countries is being formed and improved. Based on the theory of the Cheka, Sweden, which had lagged behind, modernized its economy and regained its leading position in the world economy in the 2000s. Finland, in a historically short period of time, has managed to move from a primarily resource-based economy to an innovative economy. And create your own competitive high technologies, without giving up the deepest processing of your main natural resource - forests. Managed to take first place in the world in the ranking of the competitiveness of the economy as a whole. Moreover, it was with the income from processing forests into goods with high added value that the Finns created their innovative technologies and products.

All this took place not because the theory and practice of Cheka realized some kind of magic wand, but because it became the answer of economic theory and practice to the challenges of the time, to the challenges of the innovative economy (knowledge economy) emerging in the second half of the 20th century and venture scientific -technical business.

The development of science and the formation of the information society have brought knowledge, education, health, quality of life of the population and the leading specialists themselves, who determine the creativity and innovativeness of national economies, to the forefront as components of a complex intensive development factor - human capital.

In the context of the globalization of the world economy, in the conditions of the free flow of any capital, including private capital, from country to country, from region to region, from city to city in conditions of intense international competition, the accelerated development of high technologies.

And countries with accumulated high-quality human capital have enormous advantages in creating stable conditions for increasing the quality of life, creating and developing a knowledge economy, information society, and developing civil society. That is, countries with an educated, healthy and optimistic population, competitive world-class professionals in all types of economic activity, in education, science, management and other areas.

Understanding and choosing human capital as the main factor of development literally dictates a systematic and integrated approach when developing a concept or development strategy and linking all other private strategies and programs with them. This dictate follows from the essence of the national Cheka as a multicomponent development factor. Moreover, this dictate particularly highlights the living conditions, work and quality of the tools of specialists who determine the creativity and creative energy of the country.

The core of the Cheka, of course, was and remains a person, but now an educated, creative and proactive person with a high level of professionalism. Human capital itself determines in the modern economy the main share of the national wealth of countries, regions, municipalities and organizations. At the same time, the share of unskilled labor in the GDP of developed and developing countries, including Russia, is becoming ever smaller, and in technologically advanced countries it is already vanishingly small.

Therefore, the division of labor into unskilled labor and labor requiring education, special skills and knowledge gradually loses its original meaning and economic content when defining Cheka, which the founders of Cheka theory identified with educated people and their accumulated knowledge and experience. The concept of human capital as an economic category is constantly expanding along with the development of the global information community and the knowledge economy.

Human capital in a broad definition is an intensive productive factor in the development of the economy, society and family, including the educated part of the labor force, knowledge, tools of intellectual and managerial work, living environment and work activity, ensuring the effective and rational functioning of the human capital as a productive factor of development.

Briefly: Human capital is intelligence, health, knowledge, high-quality and productive work and quality of life.

The composition of the Cheka includes investments and the return on them in the tools of intellectual and managerial work, as well as investments in the operating environment of the Cheka, ensuring its effectiveness.

CC is a complex and distributed intensive development factor. It, like blood vessels in a living organism, permeates the entire economy and society. And ensures their functioning and development. Or, on the contrary, it depresses when its quality is low. Therefore, there are objective methodological difficulties in assessing its individual economic efficiency, its individual productivity, its individual contribution to GDP growth and to improving the quality of life. CHK, through its specialists and IT, contributes to the development and growth of the economy everywhere, in all types of economic and production activities.

CHK contributes to improving the quality and productivity of labor in all types of life and life support. In all types of economic activity and management, educated professionals determine the productivity and efficiency of labor. And knowledge, high-quality work, and the qualifications of specialists play a decisive role in the effectiveness of the functioning and work of institutions and organizations of all forms and types.

The main drivers for the development of Cheka are competition, investment, and innovation.

The innovative sector of the economy, the creative part of the elite, society, and the state are sources of accumulation of high-quality human capital, which determines the direction and pace of development of the country, region, municipality, and organizations. On the other hand, accumulated high-quality human capital underlies the innovation system and economy (IE).

The development processes of HC and IE constitute a single process of formation and development of the innovative information society and its economy.

How does human capital differ from human potential? The human potential index of a country or region is calculated using three indicators: GDP (or GRP), life expectancy and literacy of the population. That is, this is a narrower concept than Cheka. The latter absorbs the concept of human potential as its enlarged component.

How is human capital different from labor resources? Labor resources are directly people, educated and uneducated, who determine skilled and unskilled labor. Human capital is a much broader concept and includes, in addition to labor resources, accumulated investments (taking into account their depreciation) in education, science, health, safety, quality of life, tools for intellectual work and the environment that ensures the effective functioning of the human capital.

Investments in the formation of an effective elite, including in the organization of competition, are one of the most important investments in the Cheka. Since the times of the classics of science D. Toynbee and M. Weber, it has been known that it is the elite of the people who determine the vector of the direction of its development. Forward, sideways or backwards.

An entrepreneurial resource is a creative resource, an intellectual resource for economic development. Therefore, investments in entrepreneurial resources are investments in the development of the human capital in terms of increasing its constructiveness, creativity and innovation. In particular, business angels are a necessary component of CHK.

Investments in institutional services are aimed at creating comfortable conditions for servicing government. institutions of citizens, including doctors, teachers, scientists, engineers, that is, the core of the Cheka, which helps improve the quality of their life and work.

With such an expansion of the economic category “human capital”, it emerges, as already noted, from the “flesh” of a person. People's brains do not work effectively when the quality of life is poor, when safety is low, or when the environment where a person lives and works is aggressive or oppressive.

The foundation on which innovative economies and information societies are created is the rule of law, high quality human capital, high quality of life and an efficient industrial economy, which has smoothly transformed into a post-industrial or innovative economy.

National human capital includes social, political capital, national intellectual priorities, national competitive advantages and the natural potential of the nation.

National human capital is measured by its value, calculated by various methods - by investment, by the discounting method and others.

National human capital makes up more than half of the national wealth of each developing country and over 70-80% of the developed countries of the world.

The characteristics of national human capital determined the historical development of world civilizations and countries of the world. National human capital in the 20th and 21st centuries was and remains the main intensive factor in the development of the economy and society.

Estimates of the value of national human capital in countries around the world

The value of the national human capital of the world's countries was assessed by World Bank specialists based on the cost method.

Estimates of the components of human capital based on the costs of the state, families, entrepreneurs and various funds were used. They allow us to determine the current annual costs of society for the reproduction of human capital.

In the USA, the value of human capital at the end of the 20th century was $95 trillion, or 77% of the national wealth (NW), 26% of the global total value of human capital.

The value of the global human capital amounted to $365 trillion, or 66% of global wealth, 384% of the US level.

For China, these figures are: $25 trillion, 77% of the total NB, 7% of the global total of HC and 26% of the US level. For Brazil, respectively: $9 trillion; 74%, 2% and 9%. For India: 7 trillion; 58%, 2%; 7%.

For Russia the figures are: $30 trillion; 50%; 8%; 32%.

The G7 countries and the EEC accounted for 59% of the global HC during the calculation period, which is 78% of their national wealth.

Human capital in most countries exceeded half of the accumulated national wealth (the exception is the OPEC countries). The percentage of HC is significantly influenced by the cost of natural resources. In particular, for Russia the share of the cost of natural resources is relatively large.

The bulk of the world's human capital is concentrated in developed countries. This is due to the fact that investment in human capital over the last half century in these countries has significantly outpaced investment in physical capital. In the United States, the ratio of “investment in people” to productive investment (social spending on education, health care and social security as a percentage of industrial investment) was 194% in 1970, and 318% in 1990.

There are certain difficulties in comparatively assessing the value of human capital in countries with different levels of development. The human capital of an underdeveloped country and a developed country has significantly different productivity per unit of capital, as well as very different quality (for example, significantly different quality of education and health care). To assess the effectiveness of national human capital, factor analysis methods are used using country-specific international indices and indicators. At the same time, the values ​​of the HR efficiency coefficient for different countries differ significantly, which is close to the differences in their labor productivity. The methodology for measuring national human capital is outlined in the work.

The value of Russian national human capital has been declining over the past 20 years due to low investments in it and the degradation of education, medicine, and science.

National human capital and historical development of countries and civilizations

The economic category “human capital” was formed gradually. And at the first stage, the composition of the Cheka included a small number of components - upbringing, education, knowledge, health. Moreover, for a long time, human capital was considered only a social factor of development, that is, a cost factor, from the point of view of the theory of economic growth. It was believed that investments in upbringing and education were unproductive and costly. In the second half of the 20th century, attitudes towards human capital and education gradually changed dramatically.

In fact, it was investments in education and science that in the past ensured the accelerated development of Western civilization - Europe and North America in comparison with China, India and other countries. Studies of the development of civilizations and countries in past centuries show that human capital even then was one of the main development factors that predetermined the successes of some countries and the failures of others.

Western civilization, at a certain historical stage, won the global historical competition with more ancient civilizations precisely due to the more rapid growth of human capital, including education, in the Middle Ages. At the end of the 18th century, Western Europe surpassed China (and India) by one and a half times in terms of per capita GDP and twice as much in terms of population literacy. The latter circumstance, coupled with economic freedom and then democracy, became the main factor in the economic success of Europeans, as well as the United States and other Anglo-Saxon countries.

The influence of human capital on economic growth is illustrated by the example of Japan. The Land of the Rising Sun, which has followed isolationist policies for centuries, has always had a high level of human capital, including education and life expectancy. In 1913, the average number of years of education for adults in Japan was 5.4 years, in Italy - 4.8, in the USA - 8.3 years, and the average life expectancy was 51 years (about the same as in Europe and the USA). In Russia, these figures were equal: 1-1.2 years and 33-35 years. Therefore, in terms of the level of starting human capital, Japan turned out to be ready in the 20th century to make a technological breakthrough and become one of the leading countries in the world.

Human capital is an independent complex intensive factor of development, in fact, the foundation of GDP growth in combination with innovation and high technology in modern conditions. The difference between this complex intensive factor and natural resources, classical labor and ordinary capital is the need for constant increased investment in it and the existence of a significant time lag in the return on these investments. In the developed countries of the world at the end of the 1990s, about 70% of all funds were invested in human capital, and only about 30% in physical capital. Moreover, the main share of investments in human capital in the advanced countries of the world is carried out by the state. And this is precisely one of its most important functions in terms of state regulation of the economy.

Analysis of the processes of change in technological structures of the economy and types of societies shows that human capital, the cycles of its growth and development are the main factors in the generation of innovative waves of development and cyclical development of the world economy and society.

Given the low level and quality of human capital, investments in high-tech industries do not yield returns. The relatively rapid successes of the Finns, Irish, Japanese, Chinese (Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, China, etc.), Koreans, and newly developed European countries (Greece, Spain, Portugal) confirm the conclusion that the foundation for the formation of human capital is high culture the bulk of the population of these countries.

Structure, type and methods of assessing the value of human capital

Structure

At one time, upbringing, education and basic science were considered a costly burden on the economy. Then the understanding of their importance as factors in the development of the economy and society changed. Education, science, and mentality as components of human capital, and the Cheka itself as a whole, have become the main factor in the growth and development of the modern economy, the development of society and improving the quality of life. The core of the Cheka, of course, was and remains a person. Human capital itself now determines the main share of the national wealth of countries, regions, municipalities and organizations.

With the development and complexity of the concept and economic category of “human capital,” its structure also became more complex.

Human capital is formed, first of all, through investments in improving the level and quality of life of the population. Including - in upbringing, education, health, knowledge (science), entrepreneurial ability and climate, in information support for labor, in the formation of an effective elite, in the safety of citizens and businesses and economic freedom, as well as in culture, art and other components. The Cheka is also formed due to the influx from other countries. Or it decreases due to its outflow, which is what is observed so far in Russia. The Cheka is not a simple number of people, ordinary workers. Cheka is professionalism, knowledge, information services, health and optimism, law-abiding citizens, creativity and efficiency of the elite, etc.

Investments in the components of the Cheka constitute its structure: upbringing, education, health, science, personal safety, entrepreneurial ability, investments in training the elite, tools for intellectual work, information services, etc.

Types of Human Capital

Human capital can be divided according to the degree of efficiency as a productive factor into negative HC (destructive) and positive (creative) HC. Between these extreme states and the components of the total human capital, there are states and components of the human capital that are intermediate in effectiveness.

This is part of the accumulated human capital, which does not provide any useful return on investment in it for society, the economy and impedes the growth of the quality of life of the population, the development of society and the individual. Not every investment in upbringing and education is useful and increases HC. An incorrigible criminal, a hired killer is a lost investment in them for society and the family. A significant contribution to the accumulated negative human capital is made by corrupt officials, criminals, drug addicts, and excessive drinkers of alcohol. And just quitters, slackers and thieving people. And, on the contrary, a significant share of the positive part of the Cheka is made up of workaholics, professionals, and world-class specialists. Negative accumulated human capital is formed on the basis of the negative aspects of the nation’s mentality, on the low culture of the population, including its market components (in particular, work ethics and entrepreneurship). Negative traditions of government structure and the functioning of state institutions on the basis of lack of freedom and underdevelopment of civil society, on the basis of investments in pseudo-upbringing, pseudo-education and pseudo-knowledge, in pseudo-science and pseudo-culture, contribute to it. A particularly significant contribution to the negative accumulated human capital can be made by the active part of the nation - its elite, since it is they who determine the policy and development strategy of the country, and lead the nation along the path of either progress, or stagnation (stagnation) or even regression.

Negative human capital requires additional investment in human capital to change the essence of knowledge and experience. To change the educational process, to change innovation and investment potential, to change for the better the mentality of the population and improve its culture. In this case, additional investments are required to compensate for the negative capital accumulated in the past.

Ineffective investments in the Cheka - investments in ineffective projects or family costs to improve the quality of the components of the Cheka, associated with corruption, unprofessionalism, false or suboptimal development ideology, family dysfunction, etc. In fact, this is an investment in the negative component of the Cheka. Ineffective investments, in particular, are: - investments in individuals incapable of learning and perceiving modern knowledge, which give zero or insignificant results; - in an ineffective and corrupt educational process; - into a system of knowledge that is formed around a false core; - in false or ineffective R&D, projects, innovations.

The accumulated negative human capital begins to fully manifest itself during periods of bifurcations - in conditions of highly disequilibrium states. In this case, there is a transition to another coordinate system (in particular, to another economic and political space), and the Cheka can change its sign and magnitude. In particular, during the country's transition to another economic and political system, during a sharp transition to another, significantly higher technological level (for enterprises and industries). This means that the accumulated human capital, primarily in the form of accumulated mentality, experience and knowledge, as well as existing education, is not suitable for solving new problems of a more complex level, tasks within the framework of a different development paradigm. And when moving to another coordinate system, to radically different requirements for the level and quality of human capital, the accumulated old human capital becomes negative and becomes a brake on development. And new additional investments are needed in the Cheka for its modification and development.

An example of ineffective investments is the investment in chemical warfare agents (CWA) in the USSR. There were almost twice as many of them created as in the rest of the world. Billions of dollars were spent. And it was necessary to spend almost the same amount of money on the destruction and disposal of chemical agents as on their production in the past. Another close example is investment in the production of tanks in the USSR. They were also produced more than in the rest of the world. Military doctrine has changed, tanks now play a lesser role in it, and investments in them have yielded zero return. They are difficult to use for peaceful purposes and impossible to sell - they are outdated.

Let us once again explain the essence of the negativity of the unproductive component of human capital. It is determined by the fact that if a person is a bearer of knowledge that does not meet modern requirements of science, technology, production, management, social sphere, etc., then retraining him often requires much more money than training the corresponding employee with zero. Or inviting an outside employee. In other words, if the quality of work is determined by pseudo-knowledge, then a fundamental change in this quality is more expensive than the formation of qualitatively new work on a modern educational basis and on the basis of other workers. In this regard, enormous difficulties lie, in particular, on the path to creating a Russian innovation system and venture business. The main obstacle here is the negative components of human capital in terms of innovative entrepreneurial ability, mentality, experience and knowledge of Russians in this area. These same problems stand in the way of introducing innovations at Russian enterprises. So far, investments in this area have not yielded adequate returns. The share of the negative component in the accumulated human capital and, accordingly, the effectiveness of investments in human capital in different countries of the world varies greatly. The efficiency of investments in HC is characterized by the conversion coefficients of investments in HC at the country level and for regions of the Russian Federation.

Positive human capital(creative or innovative) are defined as accumulated HC, providing a useful return on investment in it in the processes of development and growth. In particular, from investments in improving and maintaining the quality of life of the population, in the growth of innovative potential and institutional potential. In the development of the education system, the growth of knowledge, the development of science, the improvement of public health. To improve the quality and availability of information. CHK is an inertial productive factor. Investments in it yield returns only after some time. The size and quality of human capital depend, first of all, on the mentality, education, knowledge and health of the population. In a historically short period of time, you can get a significant return on investment in education, knowledge, health, but not in the mentality that has been formed over centuries. At the same time, the mentality of the population can significantly reduce the transformation rates of investments in HC and even make investments in HC completely ineffective.

Passive human capital- human capital that does not contribute to the country’s development processes, to the innovative economy, and is aimed mainly at its own consumption of material goods.

The fact that the human capital cannot be changed in a short time, especially with a significant amount of negative accumulated human capital, in essence, is the main problem in the development of the Russian economy from the point of view of the theory of human capital development.

The most important component of the Cheka is labor, its quality and productivity. The quality of work, in turn, is determined by the mentality of the population and the quality of life. Labor in Russia, unfortunately, has been and remains traditionally of low quality (that is, the products of Russian enterprises, with the exception of raw materials and primary products from them, are uncompetitive on world markets, productivity and labor intensity are low). The energy consumption of Russian products, depending on the industry, is two to three times higher than in countries with efficient production. And labor productivity is several times lower than in developed countries. Low-productivity and low-quality labor significantly reduces the accumulated Russian human capital and reduces its quality.

Methods for assessing the value of human capital

There are various methodological approaches to calculating the cost of human capital. J. Kendrick proposed a costly method for calculating the value of human capital - based on statistical data, calculate the accumulation of investments in a person. This technique turned out to be convenient for the United States, where extensive and reliable statistical data is available. J. Kendrick included in investments in the human capital the costs of the family and society for raising children until they reach working age and obtain a certain specialty, for retraining, advanced training, healthcare, labor migration, etc. He also included investments in housing in savings, household durable goods, household inventories, research and development expenditures. As a result of his calculations, he found that human capital in the 1970s accounted for more than half of the accumulated national wealth of the United States (excluding government investment). Kedrick's method made it possible to evaluate human capital accumulation at its full “replacement cost.” But it did not make it possible to calculate the “net value” of human capital (minus its “wear and tear”). This method did not contain a technique for separating from the total amount of costs the part of the costs used for the reproduction of human capital for its actual accumulation. The work of J. Mincer assessed the contribution of education and duration of working activity to human capital. Based on US statistics from the 1980s, Mincer obtained the dependence of the effectiveness of the Cheka on the number of years of general education, professional training and the age of the employee.

The FRASCAT methodology is based on detailed information in the USA on the costs of science since 1920. The methodology took into account the time lag between the period of R&D and the period of their implementation in accumulated human capital as an increase in the stock of knowledge and experience. The average service life of this type of capital was taken to be 18 years. The calculation results turned out to be close to the results of other researchers. The calculation algorithm was as follows. 1. Total current expenditures on science (for basic research, applied research, R&D). 2. Accumulation over the period. 3. Changes in inventories. 4. Consumption for the current period. 5. Gross accumulation. 6. Pure accumulation. International economic and financial institutions are showing constant interest in the problem of human capital. The UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) back in the 1970s. prepared a document on the strategy for the further development of mankind, which raised the problem of the role and importance of the human factor in global economic development. In this study, methods were created for calculating some components of human capital: the average life expectancy of one generation, the duration of the active working period, the net balance of the labor force, the family life cycle, etc. The cost of human capital included the cost of education, training and training of new workers, the cost of advanced training , costs of extending the working period, losses due to illness, mortality, etc.

A significant contribution to the development of the expanded concept of national wealth (taking into account the contribution of the Cheka) was made by World Bank analysts, who published a series of works that substantiated this concept. The World Bank methodology summarizes the results and methods for assessing human capital of other schools and authors. The WB methodology, in particular, takes into account accumulated knowledge and other components of human capital.

Sources of HC are selected according to the groupings of costs for the relevant areas. These are science, education, culture and art, healthcare and information support.

These sources must be supplemented with the following: investments in the safety of the population and entrepreneurs - ensure the accumulation of all other components of human capital, ensure the realization of a person’s creative and professional potential, ensure the maintenance and growth of the quality of life; investments in training the elite of society; investments in entrepreneurial capacity and entrepreneurial climate - public and private investments in small businesses and venture capital. Investments in creating conditions for maintaining and developing entrepreneurial ability ensure its implementation as an economic productive resource of the country; investments in raising children; investments in changing the mentality of the population in a positive direction are investments in the culture of the population, which determines the effectiveness of human capital; investments in institutional services for the population - the country's institutions should contribute to the disclosure and implementation of the creative and professional abilities of the population, improve the quality of life of the population, especially in terms of reducing bureaucratic pressure on it; investments in knowledge associated with inviting specialists, creative people and other talented and highly professional people from other countries who significantly increase human capital; investments in the development of economic freedom, including freedom of labor migration.

The results of calculations of human capital in Russia and the CIS countries based on the cost method using the algorithm of World Bank specialists are presented in the works. Estimates of the components of human capital based on the costs of the state, families, entrepreneurs and various funds were used. They make it possible to determine the current annual costs of society for the reproduction of Russian human capital. To assess the value of real savings, the authors of the work used the calculation of the “true savings” indicator using the methods of World Bank specialists.

Human capital in most countries exceeds half of the accumulated national wealth (the exception is OPEC countries). This reflects the high level of development of these countries. The percentage of HC is significantly influenced by the cost of natural resources. In particular, for Russia the share of the cost of natural resources is large.

It should be noted that the above methodology for assessing human capital by cost, which is quite correct for developed countries with effective government systems and efficient economies, gives a significant error for developing countries and countries with transition economies. There are certain difficulties in comparatively assessing the value of HC from different countries. The human capital of an underdeveloped country and a developed country has very different productivity per unit of capital, very different levels and quality.

This is driven by the growing income gap between people with and without world-class higher education. According to data for 1990, Americans with primary education had a total lifetime income of $756 thousand, with higher education - $1,720 thousand. That is, Americans with higher education had an average income of $1 million more . High pay for skilled and intellectual labor is one of the main incentives for acquiring knowledge in developed countries and the main factor in their development.

In turn, the high image of intellectual labor, its enormous importance for the knowledge economy, generates powerful synergistic effects of strengthening the total intelligence of the country, industries, corporations, and ultimately, the total human capital of the country. Hence the enormous advantages of the developed countries of the world and problems for countries with catching up economies trying to join their ranks.

Human capital is the main factor in the formation of the “knowledge economy”

All these provisions are included in one form or another (usually in a truncated and scholastic manner), both in the federal innovation strategy and in regional innovation strategies, programs and laws.

Essentially, an understanding of what needs to be done to create a national IP from the point of view of theory and experience of developed countries has matured at all levels of government (those who write programs and strategies). However, there has been little real progress in solving the problem.

The creative core, the engine of IP and the economy is the venture business. Venture business is by definition a risky and highly profitable business (if successful). And in this case, the participation of the state as a regulator and investor is generally accepted. The state takes on part of the risks.