Analysis of short-term lending to legal entities. Short-term lending as a type of banking product

The interest charged on a short-term loan is small; it is not profitable for banks to issue these types of loans.

That's why they artificially increase the rates on such programs. But in addition to this, financial institutions are also successfully trying to disguise high annual rates by offering quick registration with presentation.

Concept

A short-term loan is a loan that is issued for a period of no more than a year. But in practice, some banks, especially large financial corporations, groups and financial communities, increase this period.

It turns out that a short-term loan is a loan for a period of 2 years, but nothing more.

The size of the amounts in this case is also strictly limited, but basically the limits of the money supply are determined depending on the purpose. And the amounts will always be limited by the financial enterprise itself, because banks are not legally limited in this regard.

All loans, including short-term loans, have their own interest rates, which banks set and are formalized strictly by a written agreement (). Accordingly, all obligations for the timely issuance of money by the bank and payment on time in the due amount of the debt with interest by the client must be carried out on the basis of the concluded agreement ().

Today, banking institutions often begin to issue short-term loans in a non-cash form.

These are bank cards issued with borrowers, transfers to current client accounts in banks, and even processing through electronic wallets in interactive payment systems. Similarly, it can be assumed that debt repayment will be welcomed by banks in a purely non-cash form.

Although there are no special restrictions on this matter, and lenders do not have the right to oblige their borrowers to repay debts exclusively by bank transfer. It is more important here that banking structures in no case deviate from the regulations of the law - paragraph 2).

Types of short-term loans

They appear in the following list of categories when we understand this or that model of providing loans to the population.

By date of issue:

ordinary;
express loans;
credit lines – consist of several short terms included in one agreement.

According to the mechanism of application:

overdraft;
factoring;
to the current account of a legal entity;
one-time loan – consumer loans to individuals.

By the volume of the occupied limit:

conventional short-term loans;
microloans.

The whole point of an overdraft lies in the way in which the borrowed amount is applied. Today this is one of the most famous forms. And it is used mainly by enterprises that need to make regular purchases of raw materials and goods, periodically pay employees and for other purposes.

These expenses are guaranteed to always be covered by profits, from which regular deductions are also made to the accounts of the bank that provided the borrower with an overdraft. At the same time, even if there is no own money in the account, the banking organization undertakes under the contract to regularly replenish it.

Due to the fact that borrowers using the system must have demonstrable stability of their income, this type of loan is considered to be preferential.

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Factoring refers to a triple relationship between the lender, the bank and the buyer, who is an average entrepreneur. The buyer can also be a novice businessman, as well as a client if we are talking about the service sector.

In this case, the creditor will be the seller of receivables and goods (services). The factoring company will be the bank. Because his share in this scheme will be the repurchase of receivables. The buyer of goods (services) will act as the lender's client.

In a word, in such a scheme the buyer will repay his debts not to the seller (the original creditor), but to the intermediary - the bank (factoring organization).

A one-time loan will always require the client to present a certain package of papers to the lender each time the contract is executed. If a potential client is not too lazy to collect papers every time to get a loan, then he can use short-term loans from time to time.

But if there is a certain pattern in such a need, then it makes sense to take out a long-term loan. Or choose a different form of agreement for short periods of time for lending, which will be included in one agreement.

A line of credit can also be classified as a short-term type of loan. Forms of this type of loans are divided into medium-term and long-term services.

What does it mean? This means that one contract contains several short time intervals during which the borrower is provided with a certain amount of debt.

This type of loan security is divided into the following two subtypes:

revolving loan;
non-revolving loan.

In the first option, the client can repay the amount either partially or in full, both on demand and before the date specified in the contract. The second option is to use regular tranches that come to the account regardless of the intensity of repayment of the previous ones.

Providing to legal entities and individuals

If it is most convenient for a legal entity or individual entrepreneur to use an overdraft mechanism, then they should be aware of some features in the conditions of this type of loan issuance.

After all, such a short-term loan is, as a rule, a strictly limited amount, beyond which it is better for the borrower not to go. Otherwise, he will simply be forced to pay the penalty.

Overdraft agreements will always clearly define certain terms:

General periods of overdraft loans - a long-term loan, which consists of parts of short-term loans.
Short-term agreements – each new loan is drawn up in a separate agreement.
Combined options, drawn up in one agreement, which stipulate both short-term borrowing periods and longer ones - for an overdraft they should not be more than several months.

The amounts are used to repay the debt automatically, debited from the borrower’s account strictly in the order determined by the agreement. Therefore, when using bank money, an individual entrepreneur or legal entity must immediately replenish their account so that the automatic system can make transfers in a timely manner.

Factoring includes closed and open subtypes of the lending mechanism. With an open option, the person who is the payer of the loan will always be aware of the assignment of the rights of claim to the bank (intermediary financial enterprise).

Then all payments to repay the debt are sent directly to the banking institution. But in the case of a closed factoring mechanism, some measure of confidentiality must be maintained with respect to the seller.

Accordingly, the buyer has no idea of the assignment scheme involved. Then the buyer pays directly with the seller, but the seller undertakes to always transfer a certain percentage of the profit to the intermediary - the bank.

Individuals often use a one-time lending method, which refers to one-time loans and is drawn up in one agreement for each time.

Even if the client has several current accounts or bank cards, one account will still be used for each type of loan product. The terms of payment in such cases are either the same lump sum or according to a schedule.

For each client, schedules are selected separately.

When using a credit line, it will always be easy for the borrower to use the borrowed money when the need arises, and not necessarily strictly on the day of signing the agreement or the schedule for using the funds. The only thing that is required is to invest in the total term of the contract while it is valid.

Typically the duration of such a mechanism is 1 year. In addition, there are some banks that can provide clients with a benefit - they do not require additional payment from him if he does not use the money offered as a loan. The agreement can always be extended if the client successfully copes with the tasks of repaying the debt.

Re-registration of short-term into long-term

Any transfer must always be accompanied by mutual agreement. All transfers from one loan system to another are regulated, registered with the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation on October 27, 2008, No. 12523. This Regulation was also approved, which was edited on April 6, 2015.

If the client is ready to declare his insolvency, this may be the reason for his desire to change the terms of the contract - transfer from a short-term to a long-term loan.

However, such a borrower should first of all formalize his insolvency through the court. citizens or other type of loan imply their fulfillment within a certain period of time.

If you need to change this time interval, then you need to prepare the following documents:

short-term loan agreement;
a new schedule reflecting payment dates and extension of the total contract term;
a court ruling approving such a transaction;
accounting entries to ensure the correctness of registration.

If all payments are repaid on time, the loan will not be considered overdue. Therefore, the bank will not charge penalties from the client.

But if the monthly amounts are overdue, the lender has the right to collect a penalty from the client - 1/300 of the entire loan. In the event of the insolvency of a borrower recognized as such by a court decision, the debt can be restructured for a period of no more than 5 years.

Where to get

Today, almost any bank issues these types of loans. True, the subtleties of lending conditions will always be considered individually.

In general, the following features inherent in short-term loans are distinguished:

the amount of money borrowed is determined only by the bank;
You can borrow the maximum for a period of up to 2 years;
the minimum period for which you can borrow money for a short time is 1 month;
it is permissible to use borrowed amounts for any purpose;
only some programs can include collateral in their structure;
guarantee is practically not used as a way to provide loan guarantees;
in most banking offers there are fees for opening and maintaining accounts
completely absent;
annual interest rates are calculated in foreign currency in average amounts from 12 to 14%, and in rubles - from 14 to 18%;
Most often, the type of repayment of a short-term loan is carried out once a month in equal parts;
If desired, bank employees can draw up individual payment schedules with the client.

This type of lending is used:

for the purchase of consumer goods of various levels (from small household appliances to large equipment);
You can pay with quick loans in supermarkets;
for a certain period of time - for example, to pay for 1-2 semesters.;
You can also pay off medical expenses with a short-term loan.

In rare cases today, for short-term loans, commissions for registration or maintenance of client accounts are charged in the amount of 1%. But most often, banks no longer want to apply commission fees, because this scares away most of the clients.

The percentages shown on average, of course, can be higher - it all depends on the individual indicators of the client’s solvency and reliability.

Advantages and disadvantages

The identified advantages or disadvantages of such short-term loan schemes resonate with clients. After all, if we take into account that short-term loans are used for short-term needs, it becomes clear what the disadvantage may be for all borrowers.

Despite the strict conditions of the agreement concluded with the bank, the following advantages emerge for corporate clients:

The existing opportunity to regularly work on increasing your working capital without raising your own funds.
Rationality in the use of borrowed funds and a high probability that all overpayments can be minimized.
Limiting a loan allows companies to be flexible in how they use it.
No additional collateral is required.

Each legal entity can conveniently use a short-term loan to solve its financial problems that need to be solved regularly and systematically.

For example, if necessary:

provide stability in regularly paying people their earnings;
when paying for services;
to purchase goods or raw materials every month;
to pay taxes;
to neutralize any shortage in the enterprise.

When working with corporate clients, the collateral for the loan will always be their profit, so there is no need to provide additional property collateral.

The following nuances may arise for a legal entity using a short-term loan:

Risks still exist. And all because of frequently changing percentages, which are sometimes very difficult to predict.
The risk of bankruptcy may arise when the lender refuses to extend the repayment period of the loan if the client fails to repay it on time.
Limiting a loan is not always convenient for companies, enterprises, firms and organizations to conduct their activities.
If a legal entity is “young” enough, has been on the market for 3 or 6 months, then it will be practically impossible for it to get a short-term loan - the period is too short for the lender to understand the solvency and reliability of the client.

Individuals see the advantages of quick money, which they pay in a short time:

Very fast processing of applications - maximum 3 days.
The required amount is quickly issued.
There is practically no strict requirement for having an excellent credit history.
Most programs are not accompanied by a voluminous package of documents.
With the help of short-term loans, you can quickly correct your damaged credit history.

The disadvantages include the following factors:

High interest rates per annum.
The amount limit is small.
The short period for repaying the loan may be unaffordable for the client.

Short-term bank loans are an excellent solution for those who urgently need a certain amount of money. Such loans always require some degree of stability in the client's income.

Therefore, not only the bank, but also the client himself, before signing the contract, must be confident in his abilities - his reliability and solvency. One fact is noteworthy about this mechanism for lending money.

The fact is that you can choose one or another program to suit your capabilities. This can greatly facilitate the client’s task of subsequently paying off the debt to the creditor on time.

Video: Short-term business loans.

Introduction

Conclusion
Bibliography
Annex 1

Introduction

Credit arose at a certain stage in the development of society, first as a random phenomenon caused by special relationships between commodity producers: when the seller needed to sell a product, and the buyer did not have the money to buy it (since he did not produce his product or produced it, but did not sell it ). As a result of this, a need arose for the seller to transfer the goods to the buyer with deferred payment, on credit. This is the most common reason for the need for a loan.

A loan is, of course, necessary for a functioning commodity producer. However, it is needed even more for those who are just trying to organize production, but do not have their own funds. To obtain a loan, it is necessary that the one who provides it trusts the one who wants to use it. Hence the term “credit”, which comes from the Latin “credo”, and means “to believe”. When trust alone is not enough, since there is a great risk regarding the timely and full repayment of the loan, certain guarantees are required from those who have the appropriate funds or from the insurance company. The economic prerequisite for the existence of credit is the receipt of regular income by those who want to use it.

With the development of commodity production, especially when it acquires a general character, credit becomes an obligatory attribute of economic management.

This is explained by the fact that due to the specialization of producers in the production of certain goods and the cooperation caused by it, social production turns into a huge closed chain of closely interconnected links. The slightest violation in any of the links can stop the normal exchange of goods between individual producers.

This is precisely where the abstract theoretical possibility of a crisis in the sale of goods in society lies, which becomes a reality when such violations become widespread. Credit helps to avoid crisis situations, uninterruptedly carry out the production and exchange of goods. Consequently, without credit, the normal functioning of commodity production is generally impossible.

A bank loan is a very convenient and, in many cases, irreplaceable form of financial services, which allows you to flexibly take into account the needs of each borrower and adapt the conditions for obtaining a loan to them. For example, the development of credit relations between the population and the bank is not only an economic issue, but also a political and social one. In addition to the necessary economic and political stabilization, it requires further modernization of the forms and methods of lending, improvement of interest rate policy and conditions for the provision and repayment of loans, and the use of the experience of foreign countries with market economies.

The main priority of the credit policy of commercial banks is to increase the volume of the loan portfolio by increasing the volume of lending to the real sector of the economy, socially significant programs of the regions, expanding lending services to corporate clients, increasing lending volumes while simultaneously improving its quality.

In recent years, positive trends have emerged in Russia in the active operations of banks, which determines the relevance of the topic of the course work.

Changes in the system of economic relations that occurred in the Russian Federation significantly affected the organization of the banking system and the products of its activities.

Due to the fact that the rise of Russian production is largely associated with the realization of the potential of credit relations, and practice confirms that the overwhelming majority of loans are provided by credit institutions, the choice of the topic for the final work fell on the study of modern credit technologies used by banks, as well as the bank’s loan portfolio .

Over the past decade, the lending system in Russia has come a long way in development.

The changes that have occurred affected not only the philosophy of banking, but also the technology of credit operations.

The combination of the commercial interests of banks with the interests of society requires the development of a new approach to lending, a completely different method of providing loans.

The purpose of this work is to study special methods of short-term lending in Russia.

To achieve this goal, the following tasks are set:

classify special types of short-term loans;

study the conditions for issuing and repaying special types of short-term loans;

describe the accounting of loans in the form of open lines of credit;

formulate the main conclusions based on the results of writing the course work.

1. Organization of short-term lending

1.1 Classification of special types of short-term lending

In its essence, a loan is a civil transaction regulated by the norms of civil legislation - the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, Part 2, Article 807, 689.

The essence of credit is revealed in its functions, which should be considered in two aspects: macroeconomics and microeconomics.

In the first aspect, from the position of social reproduction, credit performs two functions:

the function of ensuring economic circulation with money, since credit is the main instrument for quantitative regulation of the money supply in circulation;

redistribution function, since the loan allows for inter-industry, intra-industry and territorial redistribution of the country's loan fund.

In the second aspect, from the position of an individual bank and its clients, a loan performs the function of accumulating temporarily free money and directing it for more efficient use, primarily to satisfy the temporary need for the individual circulation of capital of the clientele served, i.e. movement of capital from clients who have a surplus of it to clients who have a shortage of it.

The object of a loan is cost, which allows us to formulate the following definition of a loan as an economic category. Credit is an economic relationship between a lender and a borrower regarding the provision of a sum of money to the borrower and its timely return with interest. The loan is always reimbursable, unless otherwise specified in the agreement.

In market economic conditions, the main form of credit is a bank loan, i.e. credit provided by commercial banks of different types and types. The subjects of credit relations in the field of bank credit are economic bodies, the population, the state and the banks themselves. As is known, in a credit transaction, the subjects of credit relations always act as lenders and borrowers, according to famous authors G.N. Beloglazova and L.P. Krolivetskaya. Lenders are persons (legal and physical) who provide their temporarily available funds at the disposal of the borrower for a certain period.

Borrower is a party to a credit relationship that receives funds for use (loan) and is obliged to repay them within a specified period. As for a bank loan, the subjects of credit transactions here necessarily act in two persons, i.e. as a lender and borrower. This is due to the fact that banks mainly operate on borrowed funds and, therefore, in relation to economic bodies, the population, and the state - the owners of these funds placed in bank accounts act as borrowers. By redistributing the resources concentrated within themselves in favor of those in need, banks act as creditors. The same is observed regarding the other side of credit transactions - the population, the economy, the state. By placing funds in bank accounts, they act as creditors, and by asking for a loan, they turn into borrowers.

Currently, the following groups of subjects of credit relations can be distinguished:

borrowing banks are domestic banks and non-resident banks;

individual borrowers - the population applying for consumer loans and non-resident individuals.

the state as a borrower acts in the person of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation, financial authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and local authorities, as well as in the person of state extra-budgetary funds of the Russian Federation and extra-budgetary funds of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and local authorities.

Currently, government bodies at various levels actively act as subjects of bank credit.

Commercial banks provide them with short-term loans:

a) to cover the cash gap in the execution of the budget for the period until the end of the budget period;

b) to cover the budget deficit;

c) against securities issued to finance targeted programs for the socio-economic development of the region (republic);

d) for investment projects.

In the field of bank credit, the population of our country mainly acts as a lender.

In the practice of providing loans to clients, various methods are used. Lending methods should be understood as methods of issuing and repaying a loan in accordance with the principles of lending.

In the pre-reform period, domestic banking practice developed two methods of lending: by balance and by turnover. The essence of the balance lending method was that the movement of the loan (i.e., issuing and repaying it) was linked to the movement of the balance of the credited assets, which could be various inventory items, work in progress, finished products and shipped goods. The growth of excess reserves caused the need for a loan, and their reduction required its repayment in the corresponding part. With this method of lending, the loan was of a compensatory nature, since it reimbursed economic bodies for their own funds invested in increased (above the standard) reserves of valuables and costs.

The peculiarity of the turnover-based lending method was that the movement of the loan was determined by the turnover of material assets, i.e. their receipt and expenditure. The loan here was of a payment nature, since loans were issued directly for the payment. Repayment was carried out upon completion of the full circulation of the borrower's funds in accordance with the implementation (turnover) plan. Thanks to this method of lending, uninterrupted and continuous payment turnover of economic bodies was achieved, as well as the constant participation of the loan in the economic turnover of the borrower.

Currently, the methods of issuing and repaying loans by commercial banks are determined by the Regulations of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation “On the procedure for the provision (placement) of funds by credit institutions and their return (repayment)” dated August 31, 1998 No. 54-P. In particular, provision is made for the provision (placement) of funds to bank clients in the following main ways:

a one-time transfer of funds to a bank account, or a one-time cash withdrawal;

opening a credit line;

crediting by the bank to the client’s settlement (current, correspondent) account (if there is insufficient or no funds on it);

participation of the bank in the provision (placement) of funds to the bank client on a syndicated (consortial) basis;

in other ways that do not contradict the legislation of the Russian Federation.

One-time (targeted) loans are loans that are provided to borrowers from time to time to meet various needs. In this case, each loan is formalized by an individual loan agreement indicating the purpose and amount of the loan, the repayment period, the interest rate and collateral. In order for the bank to decide whether to issue such a loan, the borrower must each time provide it with the necessary package of documents in such cases.

Let's take a closer look at special types of short-term lending.

Opening a line of credit. A credit line is an obligation of a commercial bank to provide a sum of money to the borrower within a specified period, subject to one of the following conditions:

the total amount of the loan provided to the borrower does not exceed the maximum amount - the disbursement limit, determined by the agreement of both parties;

during the period of validity of the agreement (contract), the amount of the client’s one-time debt to the bank will not exceed the debt limit established for him by this agreement.

Thus, the bank can open for borrowers both a non-revolving line of credit (subject to the issuance limit) and a revolving line of credit (subject to the debt limit).

A credit line with an issuance limit is an agreement that provides for the issuance of loans in several amounts:

within the total amount of the contract (regardless of partial repayment);

within the overall term of the contract.

With this method of issuing loans, the turnover of the total issuance of loans should not exceed the total amount provided for in the credit line agreement. The amount of the loan provided for issuance by this agreement is the maximum amount of the loan that the borrower can use in business during the stipulated period and subject to compliance with certain conditions of the loan agreement. This maximum loan amount is called the credit line disbursement limit and is determined by the volume and terms of the business transaction for which the loan is requested.

To apply for a loan in the form of an open credit line, the borrower submits to the bank the usual package of documents, which is required in any case when applying to the bank for a loan. A loan agreement is concluded upon a positive resolution of the issue and agreement on the amount of the credit line limit between the client and the bank.

During the term of the credit line agreement, the client-borrower can receive a loan (tranche) from the bank at any time without submitting a standard package of documents. Loans are issued against an open credit line each time at the request of the borrower client in the established form, which is an integral part of the loan agreement. The application indicates the amount of the next tranche of the requested loan and the desired date for its provision by the bank.

For each individual loan issued against an open credit line, its own specific repayment period can be established, but within the limits of the total period of use of the credit line. The credit line agreement may provide for a condition under which all tranches of the loan must be repaid within the same period, i.e. at the end of the loan agreement.

The limit on issuance under a credit line is considered fully used if the turnover of the total issuance of loans for all tranches is equal to the amount stipulated in the loan agreement (agreement). For an unused limit, the loan agreement may provide for a penalty interest rate in favor of the bank.

The bank retains the right to suspend the disbursement of funds and early collect previously issued amounts if it discovers misuse of the loan, insufficient collateral, unsatisfactory accounting and warehouse records, or failure by the borrower to comply with other terms of the loan agreement. The operation of the credit line is suspended if there is an overdue debt on the loan for a duration longer than that provided for in the loan agreement.

The closure of a non-revolving credit line is carried out when the last part (tranche) of the loan is provided to the borrower.

Providing a loan to an enterprise in the form of a line of credit does not exclude the possibility of the bank providing it with loans in other ways, i.e. on a one-time basis, in the form of an overdraft, etc.

A revolving credit line is understood as an agreement (agreement) to provide a loan to a borrower, which determines the maximum amount of a one-time debt of the borrower client on loans received (debt limit) and provides for the possibility of its full or partial repayment during the term of the agreement with the right to subsequently refinance the client until established limit.

Thus, in contrast to a non-revolving credit line, where the turnover for issuing a loan is limited, with a revolving credit line the daily balance of the client’s loan debt to the bank is limited.

The maximum loan amount that a borrower can borrow during the term of the loan agreement is not limited. It is this circumstance that allows the bank, when the borrower repays the loan debt (in whole or in part), to renew the loan within the established debt limit. Repeated issuance and repayment of a loan under an agreement to open a line of credit against a debt limit is the main advantage of a revolving ("revolving") line of credit.

To formalize an agreement on opening a revolving credit line, the client-borrower submits to the bank a standard package of documents necessary for obtaining a loan. The debt limit is determined by the individual needs of the borrower client based on his business plan, analysis of future cash receipts, and actual average monthly receipts to his current account for the last 3-6 months. When concluding a loan agreement, the amount of the debt limit established for the borrower is reflected on the balance sheet in order to control the unused part of it.

The issuance of a loan to a borrower against an open revolving credit line is carried out on the basis of his application for a loan, drawn up in a certain form and which is an integral part of the loan agreement. This application must be submitted to the bank three banking days before the loan date required by the borrower. The loan is provided by crediting funds to the borrower's current account.

The loan is repaid by the borrower by non-cash transfer of funds from his current account to the account for accounting for loan debt or by the bank itself debiting funds from the accounts without acceptance. When the loan is repaid for the appropriate amount, the borrower's unused debt limit is restored.

The amount of the debt limit under an open credit line can be changed by the bank during the term of the loan agreement if the amount of receipts to the borrower’s current account decreases (excluding bank loans provided, return of previously placed deposits, including issued securities) for the past month by more than by 25%.

A credit line can also be a target (framework) line if it is opened by the bank to a client to pay for a number of deliveries of certain goods under one contract, implemented during a year or another period.

An overdraft loan is a special form of short-term loan in which the bank provides credit to the client’s current or current account. Crediting an account, Article 850 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, Part 2, means the bank making payments from the account, despite the absence of funds on it. In this case, it is considered that the bank has provided the client with a loan for the corresponding amount from the date of such payment. Crediting of a client's account can only be carried out if it is provided for in the bank account agreement. In addition to the bank account agreement, many commercial banks enter into a special loan agreement, which stipulates the basic conditions for the provision and repayment of such a loan.

Overdraft should be considered as a preferential form of lending, i.e. this loan should be provided to sufficiently financially stable borrowers in the event of a temporary shortage or lack of funds in their accounts to make payments and for a short period, taking into account the nature of their need for borrowed funds.

When deciding on the possibility and feasibility of lending to customers in the form of an overdraft, the bank should pay special attention to such factors as:

stability of the client’s settlement (current) account with the bank (in other banks), the state of cash flows passing through it;

duration of operation of the client’s current account in this bank;

the presence (absence) of file cabinet No. 2 for the client’s account during the last three months, its size and the duration of the payment and settlement documents in this file cabinet;

the state of the client’s financial and economic activities;

an established credit history and a real relationship with the creditor bank.

As a rule, banks do not consider providing a loan in the form of an overdraft if the client has a state registration period of less than 1 year; opened a current account with this bank less than 6 months ago; is a defaulter on payments to the state budget; has an unstable financial position, and, consequently, weak cash flows through its bank account.

Crediting by the bank to the client’s current account in the event of insufficient or absence of funds on it for making payments is carried out subject to the limit established for it (i.e. the maximum amount for which transactions can be carried out on the account in excess of the balance of funds on it) and the period during which they must the client's loan obligations to the bank must be repaid.

The overdraft limit is determined by the client’s needs for funds to complete payments, taking into account the possibility of regular repayment of the loan, as well as based on the individual characteristics of the borrower (field of activity, prospects for its development, relationship to the bank: shareholder, participant, client). The maximum overdraft limit, as a rule, is set by banks at a certain percentage (share) of the average monthly receipts to the client’s current account with a given bank for the last 3-6 months. The approximate procedure for determining the lending limit for an overdraft is not specified in the regulatory documents of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation. It has been developed through practice and is individual for each bank.

Within the limits of the overdraft lending limit established for the borrower, the bank can provide overdraft loans to the borrower and repay them can be carried out by the borrower client repeatedly during the entire term of the agreement on lending by the bank to the client. Moreover, unlike a non-renewable credit line, the total turnover of funds issued for the entire period of validity of the agreement is not limited by the lending limit, but the current balance on the loan account for a loan in the form of an overdraft not every day during the entire period of validity of the agreement cannot be more than that established by the bank to the client overdraft credit limit. This is similar to a revolving line of credit.

Since a loan in the form of an overdraft is provided to cover the client’s short-term, periodic needs for funds to finance working capital, the period of use of each loan should range from 15-30 days. This period must be specifically determined by agreement with the client and reflected in the agreement for the provision of a loan in the form of an overdraft. This loan can be provided to the client during the entire term of the loan agreement within the free lending limit. Thus, it is necessary to distinguish between the total term of the overdraft loan and the term of each loan within the overall term of the overdraft agreement with the client.

A bill of exchange loan is a form of lending by a bank to a bill holder through early payment to him of the amount specified in the bill of exchange, minus interest for the time from the moment the bill of exchange is discounted until the date of payment on it, as well as the amount of the bank commission. In this case, the holder of the bill transfers his rights under the bill to the bank through endorsement.

Raising funds for bills of exchange is carried out on a contractual basis.

The bank uses two types of bill of exchange loans: accounting of bills of exchange and granting a loan not in the form of cash, but in the form of bills of exchange from the creditor bank.

Accounting is the purchase of a fixed-term monetary obligation before its maturity at a price determined by the amount of the obligation minus a percentage (discount) that depends on the time before the obligation matures. It is carried out by making an endorsement on the reverse side of the bill.

The provision of bills of exchange from the creditor bank is made to borrowers for settlements with these bills of exchange with their counterparties, who then submit them to the bank for accounting.

The cost of such a bill of exchange loan depends on the chosen lending scheme. Currently, commercial banks use the following bill lending schemes:

the term of the bill of exchange is approximately equal to the term of the loan (the date of presentation of the bill of exchange for payment is one to two days longer than the date of repayment of the loan), the loan rate is significantly lower than the rate for loans in cash and consists of the margin and the bank’s costs for deductions on bills of exchange to the Mandatory Reserve Fund - 10-12% of the bill amount;

the term of the bill of exchange is less than the term of the issued loan: either a discrete rate is set (before the maturity date of the bill of exchange, the rate is similar to the rate for a bill of exchange loan, after the end of the bill and commercial loans);

the term of the bill is longer than the term of the loan: the rate is set lower than usual for bill loans and tends to zero, since the bank has the opportunity to “roll” the money received from the enterprise from the moment the loan is repaid until the bill is repaid.

The process of bill lending does not end with the stage of receiving a bill of exchange as a bank guarantee of payment of a certain amount within a specified period. It is possible to further use the bill in settlements. This is especially convenient for settlements between enterprises that are part of the same holding or financial-industrial group, where “bill chains” have already been formed.

There are other advantages of this type of loan: agreed loan rates do not change depending on the economic situation in the country; the rapidly developing bill market provides the opportunity to sell a bill or take it into account in a bank; By receiving a bill of exchange loan, you have all the advantages of bill of exchange when making payments with your partners.

Bill lending is provided in the following forms:

one-time loan;

line of credit with a withdrawal limit.

The agreement must indicate the purpose of further use of the purchased bills. In the same agreement, you can indicate that the client purchases several bills of exchange for the loan amount (the amount of denominations is equal to the loan amount). Then you can pay for several transactions at once. Having received the bills, the company pays suppliers and receives the necessary goods.

The term of the bill of exchange loan in most banks of OJSC URALSIB is 6 months. As with a regular bank loan issued in cash, a bill of exchange loan agreement allows for an extension (prolongation) of its validity period.

In this case, the bank imposes the following conditions: from the date of the loan agreement, an interest rate is established that is not lower than the corresponding rate for providing loans in cash; the borrower provides the bank with additional collateral for obligations arising in connection with changes in the interest rate and other changes in the terms of the agreement.

Bill lending is the first of the possible steps in the development of joint bill programs of banks and large enterprises.

Next, the bank can begin guaranteeing payment (availability) of the company’s bills of exchange, and then even become a payer (domicile) for the company’s bills of exchange. In the latter case, the bank acts not only as a financial agent of the company, but also maintains the liquidity of the company’s bills in Russia.

Bill lending is actively used in settlements with local budgets, when bills of exchange from certain banks are accepted as tax payments to local budgets, as well as in payments for gas, electricity, etc.

For example, such a scheme has been developed. The local budget receives a loan from a commercial bank using bills of exchange, with which it pays at par with contractor firms building facilities for the city. Next, contracting firms pay their own expenses with bills, and their counterparties have the opportunity to pay taxes to the local budget with these bills. At the bank, when the loan repayment period and the bill repayment period come, counterclaims are offset against the budget. As a result, the bank receives interest payments on the loan as “live cash flows”.

Thus, enterprises receive several advantages from bill lending compared to traditional ones:

compensation for temporary shortage of working capital;

low interest rate on the loan received (2-4 times savings on interest);

reduction of non-payments and offsets;

no need to require buyers (when using bills of exchange from large banks in settlements) to prepay for the supply of products.

the possibility of a legal entity restructuring its debt.

Creditors also benefit, because in return for doubtful debts they receive very specific claims on the bank. In exchange for this certainty of debt repayment, a business can demand various types of concessions from creditors. The bank receives interest on the loan provided and at the same time has no doubt about the repayment of this loan, since it is secured.

The attractiveness of bill lending for banks is due to the fact that they do not need to divert funds for a long period of time to provide such a loan.

Acceptance credit is the payer’s confirmation of consent to payment on a bill of exchange (draft). From the contents of the bill of exchange it follows that the circumstances regarding it for the drawee (payer) arise only from the moment of his acceptance of the bill. Otherwise, he remains a stranger to the bill. Based on this, recipients of money on a bill of exchange can find out in advance, before the payment deadline, the payer’s attitude towards payment of the bill of exchange. This purpose is achieved by presenting the bill to the drawee with an offer to accept it and, therefore, to undertake the obligation to make payment.

At the same time, presenting the bill for acceptance is not a prerequisite for those cases where the holder of the bill is confident in the solvency of the drawee and the drawer. Presentation of a bill of exchange for acceptance can be made at any time, starting from the day of its issue and ending with the moment of maturity. Specific terms must be stipulated and dated in the bill by the maker and the endorsers. A bill may be presented for acceptance and accepted even after the due date, and the drawee is liable for it as if he had accepted the bill before the due date. Most often, the bill is presented for acceptance by banks at the payer’s address, which usually coincides with the place of residence. The drawee (payer) has no right to demand that the bill be retained for acceptance. The payer may limit acceptance to part of the amount. The remaining amount of the bill is considered rejected. A bill of exchange is considered rejected in the following cases: if it is impossible to find the payer at the specified address; insolvency of the payer; if the bill states “not accepted”, “not accepted”; if the acceptance note is crossed out.

Bills of exchange accepted by the bank (banker's acceptances) are widely used in foreign trade transactions. Acceptance by a bank of urgent drafts issued to it by an exporter or importer is considered as one of the forms of bank lending for foreign trade (acceptance credit).

In the Russian Federation, it is premature to talk about the established bank acceptance market, since purchase and sale transactions of drafts accepted by foreign banks are still sporadic, and transactions with drafts accepted by Russian banks are practically absent.

1.2 Terms of issue and repayment

At the legislative level, the essence of credit relations is defined by paragraph 2 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation “Credit”. According to Article 819 “Loan Agreement”, under a loan agreement, a bank or other credit organization (lender) undertakes to provide funds (loan) to the borrower in the amount and on the terms stipulated by the agreement, and the borrower undertakes to return the amount received and pay interest on it.

The rules provided for in paragraph 1 of Chapter 42 “Loan and Credit” apply to relations under a loan agreement, according to which to a loan agreement one party (the lender) transfers into the ownership of the other party (the borrower) money or other things defined by generic characteristics, and the borrower undertakes to return to the lender the same amount of money (loan amount) or an equal amount of other things received by him of the same kind and quality. The loan agreement is considered concluded from the moment the money or other things are transferred.

A condition for the development of credit relations is the lender’s trust in the borrower, which is possible subject to the following principles:

repayment - the need to repay the loan;

urgency - the need to repay the loan within the period specified by the terms of the agreement;

payment - an indicator of this principle is the loan interest, which is a kind of price of a loan provided for temporary use;

ensuring the protection of the bank’s property interests and in the event of a possible violation by the borrower of its obligations to repay the money received on the basis of the loan;

the targeted nature of the loan, which consists in the fact that the loan is issued for a specific purpose known in advance to the bank or the activity of the borrower approved by it.

A line of credit is a legally formalized obligation of a bank to a borrower to provide loans within a certain period of time within an agreed limit. A credit line has advantages over a one-time agreement for both parties: for the borrower, it is a more certain prospect for commercial activity, saving overhead costs and time inevitably associated with negotiating and concluding each individual credit agreement. The same applies to the creditor. However, the terms of the credit line agreement may be revised by both parties to the transaction. Thus, the bank may refuse to provide a loan before the end of the agreed period if, for example, the borrower’s financial situation deteriorates significantly and the other terms of the agreement of the parties are not met. The borrower, for one reason or another, may not use the credit line in whole or in part. The agreement is often accompanied by a condition that the client keep a compensation balance in a current account with the creditor bank in the amount of at least 20% of the credit line amount.

If a lender seeks to gain a foothold in the borrower's market for many years, then it sometimes agrees to provide a line of credit for a long period.

Credit funds are provided in several amounts (tranches), each tranche is provided for a period of up to 6-9 months. During the term of the credit line, the amount of tranches outstanding as of the current date should not exceed the maximum amount of one-time claims under the credit line. The borrower must submit an application for the next tranche to the Bank 3 days before the expected date of receipt of funds.

The turnover on the borrower's current account must be no less than the maximum amount of one-time requirements under the credit line.

Enterprises that offer real estate as collateral can expect the longest term of a credit line.

Other conditions for the provision of the "Credit Line" service are similar to the conditions for the "Standard Credit" service.

Required documents.

The documents provided to receive the "Credit Line" service are similar to the documents provided to receive the "Standard Credit" service (one-time credit).

Standard terms of the credit line allow the client to repay tranches early without changing the interest rate on the credit line, which reduces interest costs on debt servicing.

The Bank mainly uses 2 types of credit line:

Option 1 - The issuance of each loan is documented in a separate protocol to the credit line agreement, which contains the main conditions (loan amount, repayment period, type of collateral, etc.). In this case, the credit line agreement establishes the general conditions of all loans within the line (limit amount, limit on the total amount of one-time claims against the Borrower for loans, the period during which the Borrower can receive loans, the procedure for issuing loans, the procedure for calculating interest, liability, obligations parties, etc.) and is in the nature of an agreement. The protocol indicates the collateral accepted for this loan. In some cases, collateral may be attached to the credit line agreement.

The total amount of one-time claims against the Borrower for loans means the amount of all separately valid loans issued under the protocols, calculated as of a certain date.

Each protocol, in fact, is a separate agreement, which may provide for different lending conditions, therefore loans issued under the protocols are considered separately from each other. If the issue of making a decision on issuing a loan under a specific protocol falls within the competence of the Credit Committee, then it is submitted for consideration by the Credit Committee.

Option 2 - Loans are issued based on written applications; the credit line agreement specifies the maximum term for each amount (a shorter period can be set by the borrower himself in a written application). The credit line agreement also stipulates the limit on the total amount of one-time claims against the Borrower for loans, the period for granting loans, the interest rate on all loans, and the type of collateral. The security is drawn up upon conclusion of the contract for the duration of the line and for the entire amount of the agreed limit.

The Bank can also provide loans to reliable clients by concluding an additional agreement to the agreement for settlement and cash services on the provision of an overdraft. It is provided if there are insufficient funds in the company’s account when making payments. Overdraft is provided for a period of 1 to 7 days to finance current payment gaps that arise in the course of the financial and economic activities of enterprises. An overdraft gives the client the right to make payments from his current account, despite the insufficiency or absence of funds on it.

Potential clients are Bank clients who have a large number of counterparties to transactions who need to plan their payments to suppliers on a daily basis, regardless of the actual receipt of revenue (trade wholesale and retail companies, manufacturers of food products, services to the public).

Standard terms of service.

The overdraft amount is no more than 25% of the turnover on the borrower's current account.

The interest rate ranges from 22 to 28% per annum and its size depends on the amount of the overdraft and the turnover of the client’s bank account. Clients who have an overdraft amount of more than 10 million rubles and this amount does not exceed 5% of the turnover on their current account can count on a minimum rate of 22%. Overdraft is a blank loan, i.e. provided without any security for it. Therefore, the issuance of such loans is possible mainly only to reliable Bank Clients. The following mandatory requirements are imposed on the Client:

availability of a current account with the Bank:

no bad credit history;

absence of any claims to the current account.

Advantages:

* does not require a lot of paperwork;

*issued for short periods.

Flaws:

* generally issued without collateral (blank loan).

* overdraft cannot be used to repay another loan.

Required documents.

The documents provided to receive the Overdraft service are similar to the documents provided to receive the Standard Credit service, with the exception of collateral documents from the list.

Providing overdrafts allows Clients to save time when issuing loans (within 1 day). The mode of operation of the current account, in which all the client’s available funds are directed daily to repay the loan debt, allows the client to receive significant (from 2 to 4% per annum) interest savings.

In general, any bank classifies the loan process into the following stages:

1) consulting:

consulting and conducting an initial interview with the Client in order to determine the Client’s needs for a particular credit banking product, consulting and assistance in choosing the optimal form and type of loan;

informing the Client about the Bank's Partners in lending programs;

clarification to the Client of the Bank's requirements for the solvency of the Borrower (Co-borrower), Guarantor, for ensuring the repayment of the loan (pledge of movable / immovable property, surety, etc.), for the list of documents necessary to confirm the information provided by the Client and the procedure for using this information by the Bank, for the assessment of collateral property , its legal status and physical condition, to insurance (collateral property, life and ability to work of the Borrower, ownership of real estate, etc.);

clarification of the procedures and terms for concluding credit and security agreements, granting and repaying loans, including the procedure for performing all actions related to mandatory state registration of real estate collateral transactions, registration of vehicles with the traffic police, the need for notarization of certain documents, obtaining the necessary consents and permits (guardianship authorities, spouse);

informing about the rights and obligations of the Bank and the Borrower.

2) preparatory (formation of documents for a loan application);

receipt of a loan application (the fact of receipt of a loan application is reflected in the Log of registration of credit applications. The Log of registration of credit applications is kept in electronic form or on paper in the credit departments of the Bank;

3) analytical (underwriting of the Client, guarantors, collateral);

analysis of the package of documents submitted by the Client;

assessment of the Client's solvency and creditworthiness;

analysis of the lending scheme based on the specifics of the Standard lending program or lending conditions different from the Standard lending programs;

conclusion on the absence of negative information about the Client, his guarantors, and the Bank’s Partners;

4) making a decision on granting a loan (preparation of an expert opinion, credit memorandum, decision-making by an official in accordance with the procedure approved by the Credit Committee);

approval by an employee of the credit department of an expert opinion / credit memorandum with the head of UKFL/SPF (loan applications of the Head Bank, different from the conditions of the Standard lending programs; credit applications of branches - in the absence/exceeding of the established limits for the branch under Standard lending programs; when lending to the branch's Clients on the terms , different from the conditions of the Standard lending program);

transfer of an expert opinion, endorsed by the head of UKFL/SPF, for approval to an official who, in accordance with the decision of the Credit Committee, has a personal decision-making limit in the appropriate amount for Standard lending programs / sublimit for decision-making on non-standard (non-standard) lending conditions; in all other cases - transfer of the loan memorandum to the secretary of the Credit Committee for consideration at a meeting of the Credit Committee in accordance with the procedure established by the Bank.

5) registration and signing of loan documents;

preparation of a package of loan documents in accordance with the decision made: loan agreement, security agreements (pledge agreement, surety agreement), application for direct write-off of funds to repay the loan and other documents in accordance with the terms of Standard lending programs / on non-standard (non-standard) lending conditions when presence of a positive decision of the Credit Committee/official within the personal limit;

registration of the Client’s application, on the basis of which funds are transferred for the intended purpose (to the bank account of a car dealership, trade organization, travel company, educational institution, to the account of the apartment seller, etc.); Client’s application for conversion of funds (if necessary);

obtaining from the Client all necessary documents provided for by the Standard lending program/on non-standard (non-standard) lending conditions subject to a positive decision of the Credit Committee/official within the personal limit.

coordination of agreements with the head of UKFL/SPF and signing of agreements and statements with the Client.

6) provision of credit;

The provision of credit funds in the currency of the Russian Federation can be carried out in cash through the Bank's cash desk or in a non-cash manner by crediting funds to the Borrower's personal demand deposit account; provision of credit funds in foreign currency - in a non-cash manner by crediting funds to the personal deposit account before Borrower's demand.

7) loan monitoring;

current control over the Borrower’s fulfillment of obligations under the loan agreement: repayment of current debt (principal and interest on the loan) and overdue debt;

checking the intended use of loan funds;

conducting an analysis of the Client’s solvency and creditworthiness (if necessary, determined by the head of UKFL/SPF);

as necessary (determined by the head of the UKFL/SPF), conducting inspections of the condition of the collateral provided by the Borrower with the signing of reports based on the results of the inspections;

monitoring the Borrower’s activity on other transactions in the Bank (deposits, bank cards, etc.);

monitoring the Borrower’s compliance with the terms of loan and security agreements (providing the necessary documents, concluding collateral agreements, insurance, etc.).

8) loan servicing.

Repayment of the loan and interest for the use of loan funds is carried out by the Borrower in accordance with the debt repayment schedule contained in the loan agreement/based on the written application of the Borrower. Credit debt and interest debt are repaid by debiting from the Borrower's personal account on a demand deposit opened with the Bank, based on a written application from the Borrower. By depositing cash into the Bank's cash desk, without crediting funds to the Borrower's demand deposit account, only debt in Russian rubles can be repaid.

2. Characteristics of accounting accounts in the form of open credit lines

2.1 Organization of accounting for loans in the form of open credit lines

Bank accounting is maintained on the basis and in accordance with the Federal Law of the Russian Federation dated November 21, 1996 No. 129-FZ “On Accounting”, the Rules for maintaining accounting records in credit institutions, approved by the Regulations of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation dated December 5, 2002 No. 205-P, Regulations on non-cash payments in the Russian Federation 2-P (as amended by Directive of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation dated June 11, 2004 No. 1442-U), Chart of Accounts in Credit Institutions (as amended by Directive of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation dated August 9, 2004 N 1484 -U).

The head of the bank is responsible for organizing accounting and compliance with legislation when performing banking operations.

The chief accountant is responsible for the formation of accounting policies, maintenance of accounting records, and timely submission of complete and reliable financial statements. It ensures compliance of ongoing operations with the legislation of the Russian Federation, instructions of the Bank of Russia, control over the movement of property and fulfillment of obligations.

The Bank provides loans to clients (clients with an impeccable credit history, high creditworthiness, regular clients of the Bank who have a current account with this bank) in the following forms: open credit line; blank loan; loan based on a current account; bill of exchange credit; loan with a bank guarantee; loan secured by securities; consortial loan.

Reflection of transactions related to the provision of borrowed funds to a client The legal entity lending department submits to the Department of Accounting and Control of Financial Transactions (OUKFO) the originals of the following documents: loan agreement (agreement, line), collateral agreement, guarantee agreement, client’s order for direct write-off, application-obligation the client, an order from the credit department to issue a loan, a savings card to create a reserve for possible loan losses, and other documents ensuring the repayment of the loan.

Based on these documents, specialists of the UKFO Department for Accounting and Control of Financial Transactions carry out the following operations in the credit automated workstation Automated Workplace:

opens a loan agreement (agreement, line) to the borrower; at the same time, in the case of opening a credit agreement, the client’s application-obligation to provide the next tranche of the loan is a separate loan agreement within the framework of the agreement and is accounted for in a separate loan account;

enters the interest rates and loan terms established by the loan agreement into the loan agreement in the credit workstation;

checks the risk group assigned to the loan agreement in accordance with the Regulations of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation dated March 26, 2004 No. 254-P “Regulations on the procedure for credit institutions to form reserves for possible losses on loans, on loan and equivalent debt”;

introduces a risk group in the Credit AWP into the loan agreement;

opens an off-balance sheet account 913 for the borrower depending on the type of loan security;

enters the following accounts into the related accounts section: an expense account when creating a reserve, an income account when writing off a reserve, an income account from interest on a loan.

When opening a credit line in a credit automated workplace, off-balance sheet accounts to account for the unused limit of credit funds (91302, 91309) are opened automatically. The UKFO specialist monitors the correct opening of these accounts, as well as the reflection of accounting entries for the establishment, use and restoration of the unused limit of credit funds.

The transfer of original documents is carried out according to the inventory, which is signed by an employee of the Credit Department and an OUKFO specialist. One copy of the inventory remains in the credit file. The UKFO specialist checks compliance with all established procedures and authorities.

Based on the borrower’s application-obligation to issue a loan provided by the Credit Department, the OUKFO specialist generates and makes a posting for the issue.

Chapter 1 Credit and its functions, lending principles

1.1 Concept, classification of loan

Credit comes from the Latin kreditum (loan, debt). At the same time, kreditum is translated as “I believe”, “I trust”. In the broadest sense of the word - both from a legal and economic point of view - a loan is a transaction, an agreement between legal entities or individuals about a loan or loan. The New Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary adds to this definition “...usually with interest.” One of the partners (lender, creditor) provides the other (lender, borrower) with money (sometimes property) for a certain period of time with the condition of returning an equivalent value, usually with payment for this service in the form of interest. With a loan, a loan agreement or loan appears (the concepts of loan and loan can be used interchangeably).

More briefly, this concept can be expressed as follows: “Credit is a loan in monetary or commodity form on the terms of repayment and usually with the payment of interest; expresses the economic relationship between the lender and the borrower.” Thus, the above definition of credit emphasizes its essence as a type of economic relationship.

A loan, by definition, is money or other things, united by generic characteristics, lent by one party to another party. Consequently, credit legal relations mean all legal relations arising as a result of the provision (transfer), use and subject to the return of funds or other things. In practice, credit can exist both in its pure form (loans, bank loans) and serve as an integral part of a wide variety of civil obligations.

Loan classification is traditionally carried out according to several basic criteria. The most important of these include the category of lender and borrower, as well as the form in which a specific loan is provided. Based on this, the following forms of credit should be distinguished: banking, commercial, consumer, state and international.

Bank credit is one of the most common forms of credit relations in the economy, the object of which is the process of transferring funds directly to the loan. Provided exclusively by specialized financial institutions licensed to carry out such operations from the Central Bank
. The instrument of credit relations is a credit agreement or credit agreement. Income from this form of loan comes in the form of loan interest or bank interest, the rate of which is determined by agreement of the parties, taking into account its average rate for a given period and specific lending conditions.

One of the first forms of credit relations in the economy, which gave rise to bill circulation and, thereby, actively contributed to the development of non-cash money circulation, finding practical expression in economic and financial relations between legal entities in the form of sales of products or services with deferred payment, is a commercial loan. The instrument of a commercial loan is traditionally a bill of exchange, expressing the financial obligations of the borrower towards the lender. The most widespread are two forms of promissory notes: a promissory note, which contains a direct obligation of the borrower to pay a specified amount directly to the creditor, and a transferable one (draft), which represents a written order to the borrower from the creditor to pay the specified amount to a third party or the bearer of the bill. In modern conditions, the functions of a bill of exchange are often assumed by a standard agreement between the supplier and the consumer, which regulates the procedure for paying for products sold on the terms of a commercial loan.

The main distinguishing feature of consumer credit is the targeted form of lending to individuals. Both specialized credit organizations and any legal entities that sell goods or services can act as a lender. In monetary form, it is provided as a bank loan to an individual for the purchase of real estate, payment for expensive treatment, etc., in commodity form - in the process of retail sale of goods with deferred payment.

State credit is a set of economic relations between the state represented by its authorities and management, on the one hand, and legal entities and individuals, on the other, in which the state acts primarily as a borrower, as well as a lender and guarantor. In quantitative terms, the activity of the state as a borrower of funds predominates. Volumes of transactions as a lender, i.e. when the state provides loans to legal entities and individuals is significantly lower. In cases where the state assumes responsibility for repaying loans or fulfilling other obligations undertaken by individuals and legal entities, it is a guarantor.

International credit is considered as a set of credit relations operating at the international level, the direct participants of which can be international financial and credit institutions (IMF, IBRD, etc.), the governments of the relevant states and individual legal entities, including credit organizations. In relations involving states in general and international institutions, credit always appears in monetary form, in foreign trade activities - and in goods (as a type of commercial loan to an importer).

The most common in modern Russian conditions are short-term targeted loans. Their terms do not exceed one year, are one-time in nature and serve specific business transactions. By purpose, we can distinguish loans for production purposes, loans for trade and intermediary operations, loans for temporary needs. Borrowers of targeted loans can be organizations that do not have current accounts with the creditor bank, however, since the bank’s risks in this case increase significantly, banks prefer to lend to their clients.

Loans for production purposes are associated with borrowers obtaining loans to finance the purchase of raw materials, warehousing of finished products and the implementation of production costs. If the loan is related to the accumulation of inventory, the bank can provide the borrower with a certain amount of the amount of current inventory, for example, 35% of the amount of goods in the warehouse. In this case, the loan is repaid as inventory is sold.

Loans for temporary needs are provided to pay wages and make payments to the budget, that is, they serve to satisfy the client’s short-term need for funds. A loan to pay wages is provided to business entities when there is a temporary lack of funds in their current account.

Consumer loans in our country are loans provided to the population. At the same time, the consumer nature of the loan is determined by the purpose of providing the loan (the object of lending). In Russia, consumer loans include any types of loans provided to the population, including loans for the purchase of durable goods, mortgage loans, loans for emergency needs, and others.

Thus, credit is a multifaceted process that covers all aspects of economic activity. The role of credit in the development of production is manifested in its functions.

1.2 Functions of credit

When considering the functions of credit, one should take into account their difference from the role of credit. If a function is a manifestation of the essence, an expression of the social purpose of a loan, then through the role the results of its use are revealed based on the functions performed. But, despite the difference between the concepts of function and role, they are interrelated. By using the functions of credit, economic entities and society as a whole achieve production efficiency, acceleration of circulation and income growth. Because of this, clarifying the functions of credit is of great practical importance to ensure conditions under which they would manifest themselves most effectively.

The essence of credit appears in its three functions:

Distributions on a repayable basis of funds (distribution function);

Creation of credit means of circulation and replacement of cash (emission function);

Exercising control over the efficiency of economic entities (control function).

The distribution function of credit is revealed both during the accumulation of funds and during their placement, i.e. Through a loan, funds are distributed on a repayable basis. This function is clearly manifested in the process of providing temporary funds to enterprises and organizations (as well as savings of the population) to meet their needs for monetary resources. Borrowings to replenish working capital traditionally include a short-term bank loan. Currently, it is actively used only in cases where the transaction being financed generates income that exceeds the cost of paying bank interest for using the loan. Thus, farms are provided with the necessary working capital and resources for investment. In conditions of inflation, borrowed funds in the form of bank loans are often used more efficiently than own working capital. The reason is that borrowed sources have a specific purpose and, as a rule, make a faster circulation; their use is subject to tighter control by financial services. In addition, the borrower, by repaying the bank for the loan to a greater extent than expected with depreciated money, also ends up winning.

The objective need for a loan is also due to the commercial organization of enterprise management in market conditions, when at each enterprise, in the process of continuous circulation of individual capital, a need arises for additional amounts or, conversely, monetary resources are temporarily released. With the help of the credit mechanism, these fluctuations are flexibly regulated and enterprises receive the funds they need for normal operation.

The role of credit is especially important in organizing working capital for enterprises that have seasonal supply, production or sales conditions. They need a loan to form temporary reserves. But enterprises that are not associated with seasonal operating conditions also need loans. In any enterprise, working capital and circulation funds either decrease or increase, while the proportions between capital in commodity, productive and monetary forms change. This circumstance is explained by the fact that the amount of inventory constantly fluctuates depending on the timing of receipt of raw materials. The amount of balances of finished products and the funds needed by the enterprise also depends on the terms of delivery, the timing of receiving payments from customers and payment of supplier bills, the timing of wage payments, etc. Therefore, despite the uniform production process, enterprises in non-seasonal sectors of the economy in the process of circulation of funds constantly form short-term deviations from the established average values. The objective process of ebb and flow of funds from individual enterprises requires a certain flexibility of the entire system of capital organization.

The role of credit is also great in investments and in the reproduction of fixed assets. The ability of credit to anticipate future expenses ensures that capital investments are made before the business entity has accumulated profits and depreciation for investment. The combination of equity capital with borrowed capital allows you to quickly respond to technological progress and quickly pay for the implementation of the latest scientific achievements.

Speaking about the importance of credit in the development of economic relations between industries and regions, in increasing production efficiency, it is necessary to show its role in the creation and use of income and profit. The fact is that credit serves the process of creating, distributing and using income. Credit and the credit system, servicing the circulation of funds, take part in the distribution of the gross product. Without the functioning of credit, the redistribution process would be impossible.

An important function of credit is the creation of credit means of circulation and replacement of cash (emission function). It manifests itself in the fact that in the process of lending, means of payment are created, i.e. turnover is provided with money in both cash and non-cash forms. This function of credit is also revealed when non-cash payments occur based on the replacement of cash. Any issue - cash or non-cash - is the result of a credit transaction. An increase in emissions is at the same time an increase in the resources of the loan fund. Of course, this resource must be strictly limited to the needs of normal money circulation, taking into account the operation of the law of monetary circulation. This also reveals the need for credit.

Although the function of credit is an objective category that exists independently of the will and desire of people, the credit system can create conditions that allow credit to be more fully used to achieve set goals. With this in mind, banks and borrowers are advised to use different types of loans. Choosing them is not only a technical matter. When choosing a specific type of loan, borrowers take into account the specific type of loan, economic feasibility, and find out whether this form of lending allows for the most complete use of the loan to increase profitability and develop their activities.

Considering the functions of credit, it is appropriate to note that on their basis, the economy is controlled by the ruble. It is on the basis of credit relations that monitoring the activities of borrowers and lenders is built, the creditworthiness and solvency of business entities are assessed, and compliance with lending principles is monitored. This gave rise to some authors talking about the control function inherent in credit. Any creditor - be it a bank, an entrepreneur or an individual - controls the borrower’s condition through a loan in a unique way, trying to prevent untimely repayment of the debt.

1.3 Lending principles

A number of economists, when studying this issue, highlight the following principles of lending: repayment, urgency, payment and security. Other experts add to the above principles the targeted nature of the loan and the differentiation of lending. The author believes that, based on banking practice, all of these principles are important; compliance with them allows you to avoid the presence of non-performing loans, overdue loans and, consequently, losses.

So, the principles of lending include:

Repayment and urgency of lending;

Differentiation of lending;

Targeted nature of the loan;

Loan security;

Repayment of bank loans.

Let's take a closer look at each of the principles.

Repayment is the feature that distinguishes credit as an economic category from other economic categories of commodity-money relations. Without repayment, a loan cannot exist, therefore repayment is an integral part of the loan, its attribute. This principle expresses the need for timely return of financial resources received from the lender after completion of their use by the borrower. It finds its practical expression in the repayment of a specific loan by transferring the corresponding amount of funds to the account of the credit institution (or other creditor) that provided it, which ensures the renewability of the bank’s credit resources as a necessary condition for the continuation of its statutory activities.

The repayment and urgency of lending is due to the fact that banks mobilize temporarily free funds of enterprises, institutions and the population for lending. These funds do not belong to banks, and, ultimately, they, having come to the bank from various market segments, go to them (consumer, commercial lending, etc.). The main feature of such funds is that they are subject to return (more correctly, there must be a readiness for return) to the owners who invested them in the bank on the terms of time deposits. Therefore, the “golden” banking rule states that the size and timing of the bank’s financial requirements must correspond to the size and timing of its obligations. Violation of this fundamental principle leads to bank bankruptcy.

Urgency lending is a necessary form of achieving loan repayment. The principle of urgency means that the loan must not only be repaid, but repaid within a strictly defined period, i.e. the time factor finds concrete expression in it. And, therefore, urgency is the temporary certainty of the repayment of the loan. According to repayment terms, bank loans are divided into:

Short-term loans – provided for a period of up to one year;

Medium-term loans – provided for a period of one to three years;

Long-term loans – average repayment period from three to five years;

On-call loans are repayable within a fixed period after formal notification from the lender.

The loan term is the maximum time the loaned funds will remain in the borrower’s household and is the measure beyond which quantitative changes over time turn into qualitative ones. If the loan term is violated, the essence of the loan is distorted and it loses its true purpose. Violation of this condition is a sufficient basis for the lender to apply economic sanctions to the borrower in the form of an increase in the interest charged, and with a further delay - filing financial claims in court.

Differentiation of lending means that commercial banks should not have a clear approach to the issue of issuing a loan to their clients applying for it. The practical implementation of the principle may depend both on the individual interests of a particular bank, and on the centralized policy pursued by the state to support certain industries or areas of activity (for example, small businesses, etc.). Loans should be provided only to those economic entities that are able to repay them in a timely manner. Therefore, differentiation of lending should be carried out on the basis of lending indicators, which is understood as the financial condition of the enterprise, which gives confidence in the ability and willingness of the borrower to repay the loan within the period stipulated by the contract. These qualities of potential borrowers are assessed by analyzing their balance sheet for liquidity, the economy’s provision of its own sources, the level of profitability at the current moment and in the future.

The degree of creditworthiness (or level of creditworthiness) of a client is an indicator of the individual or private credit risk for the bank associated with a specific client, a specific loan issued to the client.

The targeted nature of the loan applies to most types of credit transactions, expressing the need for the targeted use of funds received from the lender. Finds practical expression in the relevant section of the loan agreement, which establishes the specific purpose of the loan, as well as in the process of bank control over compliance with this condition by the borrower. Violation of this obligation may become the basis for early revocation of the loan or the introduction of a penalty (increased) loan interest rate. As an exception to this rule, there are general loans that are used by the borrower at his own discretion to meet any needs for financial resources.

Loan collateral covers one of the main credit risks – the risk of non-repayment of the loan. This principle expresses the need to ensure the protection of the property interests of the lender in the event of a possible violation by the borrower of its obligations and finds practical expression in such forms of lending as loans secured by collateral or financial guarantees. If this principle were not taken into account, banking would turn into a speculative activity, where the high risk of transactions would lead to a sharp rise in interest rates.

It should be noted that the solution to the problem of loan security depends on the type of lending and on the subject of the loan. If we talk about a large company that has been successfully operating for decades, has a good and long credit history, occupies a leading position in the market, and is headed by well-known professionals, then resolving the issue of securing loans requires one approach. If we consider the issue of a loan for a small enterprise that has just registered and is starting its business from scratch, then it is impossible to issue a loan without resolving the issue of collateral. An interesting position is with collateral in consumer lending, where a statistical approach to assessing credit risk is possible and the collateral can be a good set of specific criteria for the borrower. Currently, banks use a type of loan called a trust loan, the only form of security for which is a loan agreement. This type of loan does not have specific collateral and therefore is provided, as a rule, to first-class creditworthiness clients with whom the bank has long-standing ties and has no claims on previously issued loans.

Payment of bank loans means that loan recipients pay a certain fee for the temporary use of funds for their needs. The implementation of this principle in practice is carried out through the mechanism of bank interest. The bank interest rate is a kind of “price” of the loan. The repayment of the loan is intended to have a stimulating effect on the economic (commercial) calculation of enterprises, encouraging them to increase their own resources and economically spend borrowed funds. For the bank, the repayment of the loan ensures that it covers its costs associated with the payment of interest on other people’s funds attracted into deposits, the costs of maintaining its apparatus, and also ensures the receipt of profit to increase the lending resource funds (reserve, statutory) and use them for its own and other needs.

When considering the amount of loan fees, banks should consider the following factors:

Refinancing rate of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation;

Average interest rate (the rate of attraction of interbank loans or the rate paid by the bank on deposits of various types);

Structure of credit resources (the higher the share of borrowed funds, the more expensive the loan should be);

Demand for a loan from potential borrowers (the lower the demand, the cheaper the loan);

The period for which the loan is requested, the type of loan, or rather the degree of its risk for the bank, depending on the collateral;

Stability of monetary circulation in the country (the higher the inflation rate, the more expensive the loan fee should be, since the bank has an increased risk of losing its resources due to the depreciation of money);

Seasonality of production (for example, in Russia the interest rate traditionally increases in August - September, which is associated with the need to provide agricultural loans and loans for the import of goods to the Far North).

In addition, the determination of the interest rate is influenced by the cyclical development of a market economy (at the stage of recession, loan interest, as a rule, increases, at the stage of rapid growth, it decreases), the situation on the international credit market, the dynamics of cash savings of individuals and legal entities (with a tendency to their reduction, loan interest, as a rule, increases), the dynamics of production and circulation, which determines the needs for credit resources of the corresponding categories of potential borrowers, the ratio between the size of loans provided by the state and its debt (loan interest steadily increases with an increase in domestic public debt).

Loan interest may be charged at the time of total repayment of the loan, or paid evenly by the borrower throughout the entire term of the loan agreement. Also, the loan interest may be withheld by the bank at the time the loan is directly issued to the borrower.

In addition, the loan agreement may provide for various types of interest rates. If the interest rate is fixed, then during the entire loan period it is not subject to revision. In this case, the borrower undertakes to pay interest at a constant agreed rate for using the loan, regardless of changes in conditions in the interest rate market. Fixed interest rates are applied for short-term lending. Floating interest rates constantly change depending on the situation in the credit and financial markets. Stepped interest rates are used during periods of severe inflation and are revised periodically.

The combined application in practice of all the principles of bank lending makes it possible to observe both macroeconomic interests and interests at the micro level of both subjects of the credit transaction - the bank and the borrower.

The following terms and definitions are constantly used in the lending process:

A legal entity is an organization that has separate property in ownership, economic management or operational management and is liable for its obligations with this property, can, on its own behalf, acquire and exercise property and personal non-property rights, bear responsibilities, and be a plaintiff and defendant in court.

An individual entrepreneur is a citizen of the Russian Federation engaged in entrepreneurial activities without forming a legal entity.

The Credit Committee is a permanent collegial body of the Bank, whose competence includes making decisions on lending to legal entities, individual entrepreneurs and individuals within the established powers.

Credit Committee of Sberbank of Russia - Committee of Sberbank of Russia for the provision of loans and investments.

Committee on Rates and Limits – Sberbank of Russia Committee on Interest Rates and Limits.

Bank – central office, branch, additional office of a branch of Sberbank of Russia, providing lending to legal entities, individual entrepreneurs and individuals.

Lending division – division of the Bank, which is entrusted with the functions of lending to legal entities, individual entrepreneurs and individuals.

Loan documentation – Loan Agreement, Agreement on Opening a Non-Revolving Credit Line, Agreement on Opening a Revolving Credit Line, General Agreement on Opening a Credit Line and Agreements concluded on the basis and in accordance with it, as well as documents used to secure the loan (collateral agreement, guarantees and etc.).

Database – database maintained by the Bank for Borrowers.

Tranche – the amount of credit resources transferred by the Bank to the Borrower on a certain date or period of time in accordance with the terms of the Credit Agreement (Credit Line Agreement).

Thus, an analysis of the general principles of credit relations allows us to conclude: credit ensures the continuity of the production process and contributes to the acceleration of economic development. In modern conditions, short-term lending to individuals and legal entities is of particular relevance.

Chapter 2 Short-term lending to legal entities

2.1 Types and general conditions of short-term lending to legal entities

The main types of short-term loans are:

Lending through a credit line;

Overdraft, contract loan;

Bill of exchange loans;

Consortium loans.

A line of credit is a legally formalized agreement between a bank and a borrower on the bank’s obligation to provide loans to the borrower for a certain period of time within the agreed limit.

A credit line is convenient for both parties to the credit process, as it allows you to plan the amount of funds used, save time during negotiations and concluding a new loan agreement. A line of credit allows the borrower to borrow funds within a certain limit, repay all or part of the loan proceeds, and re-borrow within the term of the line of credit.

The size of the credit line, as a rule, is established on the basis of the borrower’s balance sheet data on the placement of working capital and the sources of their formation at its disposal.

The credit line is opened for enterprises and organizations with a stable financial position.

The credit line opened to the borrower can be framework, revolving or non-renewable.

The framework credit line is targeted, that is, the loan in this case is provided to pay for goods supplies under one contract within a specified period.

Revolving line of credit, also called A revolving loan is the most common type of line of credit. In this case, the loan is provided and repaid within the established limit and loan terms automatically, without additional negotiations. A revolving loan allows you to smooth out fluctuations within the company's production cycle, providing the opportunity to borrow additional funds during periods of declining sales volumes and repay them during periods of increasing these volumes.

A non-revolving line of credit is characterized by the fact that after the loan is issued and repaid, the relationship between the bank and the borrower is terminated.

Overdraft is a short-term loan, which is provided by debiting funds from a bank client’s account in excess of the balance in the account; in other words, this is the possibility of a negative debit balance forming on the client’s account. An overdraft loan is multi-purpose in nature and is issued to cover the client’s needs for working capital. An overdraft can be permitted, that is, formed by agreement of the parties, and unauthorized, that is, without the consent of the bank. Provision of borrowed funds to the client is carried out on the basis of an additional overdraft agreement, which is an annex to the bank account agreement.

The issuance of a loan to the borrower can also be carried out by opening a current account, that is, in the form of a current loan, which is provided through the opening of a current account, from which claims presented to the client are paid in the absence of his own funds in the account. Thus, a current loan allows you to carry out monetary transactions not only within the free balance of funds, but also at the expense of loan funds.

In a general sense, bill lending is any form of lending that uses bills of exchange. At the same time, bill lending should not be understood as a loan issued by bills of exchange. When issuing bank bills, a credit agreement can be simultaneously drawn up, according to which the borrower (client) undertakes to pay an amount equal to the face value plus an agreed interest within a certain period of time. With this money, the bill is subsequently redeemed when the last holder of the bill presents it to the drawer (bank) for payment.

Bill loans are divided into permanent and one-time loans. The difference between these types of loans is that with a permanent loan, the client can use the loan amount repeatedly within the permitted limits; A one-time loan allows the total amount to be used only once.

A consortium loan is a loan provided by several lenders, that is, a banking consortium to one borrower. Such loans are also called syndicated.

Banking consortium pools its temporarily available financial resources for a certain period of time for the purpose of lending to a borrower or object. Borrowers of consortium loans can be any enterprise, organization, as well as banks and the state. The objects of consortium transactions are commodity transactions, transactions on the securities market, on the foreign exchange market, when introducing scientific and technical developments, and so on.

Lending conditions are determined by the reliability of the borrower and the financed project, the consent of other banks to participate in lending, foreign currency loans, possible risks and methods of insuring them.

Consortium loans are used extremely rarely in Russian practice due to the legal uncertainty of this issue.

Loans are provided to residents of the Russian Federation - legal entities of any organizational and legal form and individual entrepreneurs who have entered into a bank account agreement with the Bank.

When lending to legal entities registered in the form of limited liability companies, it is necessary to take into account the risks associated with the dependence of its financial condition on the intentions of its participants regarding the existence and economic development of the company. In order to reduce these risks, the loan documentation includes a clause on the Lender’s right to early collect the provided loan resources in the event of the withdrawal (or reduction of the share) of any of the participants from the Limited Liability Company.

To obtain a loan, the Borrower provides the Bank with the following documents:

1. Application for a loan in any form (indicating the amount, purpose of the loan, term and form of security, as well as the location and postal address of the Borrower; telephone numbers, names and positions of the Borrower’s managers, who, in accordance with the law or a power of attorney, are granted the right to submit documents and negotiations on loan issues).

2. Borrower’s questionnaire (Appendix A).

3. Documents confirming the legal capacity of the Borrower:

A notarized copy of the Charter (Regulations), registered in the manner prescribed by law;

A notarized copy of the constituent agreement (if the law requires its preparation);

A card with sample signatures of account holders and a seal imprint, certified by a notary;

Copies of minutes of meetings of bodies authorized by the Charter of organizations (orders) on the appointment of persons specified in the card with sample signatures to the corresponding position, certified by the Borrower’s seal;

Certificate of registration or a notarized copy thereof;

The composition of shareholders/participants/members/shareholders (over 1% of shares/shares/shares) at present, as well as data on changes in composition over the last year (with a participation share of more than 5%), including information about shareholders, on behalf of whose nominal holders are other persons, as of the time of the annual meeting of shareholders or a later date;

Personal composition of the senior management of the corporate client;

List of subsidiaries and dependent organizations indicating their participation shares.

Any of the listed documents are not provided if they are in the Borrower’s legal file with the bank.

4. A notarized copy of the Certificate of the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Taxes and Duties on registration of a legal entity with the tax authority.

5. Financial documents:

Annual report for the last financial year, compiled in accordance with the requirements of the Ministry of Finance of Russia, with a mark of acceptance by the division of the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Taxes and Duties, including;

Balance sheet;

Explanations for the balance sheet and profit and loss statement - forms No. 3,4,5, explanatory note;

The auditor's report (or its final part) based on the results of the mandatory audit of the annual financial statements for the last financial year (in its absence, for the previous year);

Auditor's report based on the results of the audit of financial statements prepared in accordance with International Financial Reporting Standards (if any);

Accounting reports for the previous 4 quarters with a mark of acceptance by the department of the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Taxes and Duties, including:

Balance sheet;

Profit and loss statement – form No. 2;

Breakdown of the amounts of balances on off-balance sheet accounts for received and issued collateral as of the reporting dates for the last month and quarter, as well as on the date of filing the application, indicating the names of the organizations in whose favor the collateral was issued, and the names of the principals or organizations for whose obligations the collateral was issued, and also the dates of occurrence and fulfillment of obligations under the issued collateral;

Explanation of accounts payable and receivable for the presented balance sheets, indicating the names of creditors and debtors and dates of debt occurrence (including overdue no more than 3 months, up to 3 months);

Breakdown of debt on bank loans to the submitted balance sheets and as of the date of application, indicating the creditors, the amount of debt, the date of receipt of the loan, the date of repayment, the interest rate, the frequency of repayment, the amount of overdue interest;

Explanations of short-term and long-term financial investments for the presented balance sheets;

Certificate of cash flow;

Explanation of other current assets for the presented balance sheets, except for the annual one, broken down by balance sheet accounts;

A certificate from the division of the Ministry of the Russian Federation for taxes and duties on the presence/absence of debt to the budget, as well as on accounts opened in commercial banks, if it is impossible to obtain it - a certificate from the enterprise about the absence of debt to budgets of all levels or a breakdown of overdue debt (indicating the deadlines , volumes, reasons);

Certificates of availability of settlement, current, loan and other accounts;

Certificates from banks about the balances on the Borrower's current and current foreign currency accounts and the presence of claims against the accounts;

Certificates of total monthly turnover on settlement, current and foreign currency accounts for the last 12 months;

Documented data on the balances on the Borrower’s loan accounts with the Bank or other credit institutions.

The loan officer has the right to request from the Borrower other financial documents necessary for consideration of the application.

6. Terms of issue and volume of securities in circulation and/or planned for issue, including the bond issue prospectus.

7. Credit history with other commercial banks for at least the last year.

8. Minutes of the meeting of bodies, in accordance with the Charter of the organization, authorized to make decisions on issuing a loan and pledging property.

9. Documents on the feasibility study of loan repayment:

A business plan for the current year or for the period of using the loan, if the loan period extends beyond the current financial year, confirming the possibility of repaying the loan taking into account all existing obligations - a plan of income and expenses (Appendix B) and a cash flow forecast for the current financial year or for the period of use of loan funds (Appendix B), if the loan period extends beyond the current financial year, confirming the ability of the enterprise to service and repay the loan, taking into account all existing obligations, including to the Bank;

In addition, when lending trade and intermediary transactions, individual deliveries of goods under contracts implemented during a certain period, as well as when financing stages of costs associated with the implementation of targeted (commercial) programs of the borrower, it is necessary to provide a feasibility study of the loan (Appendix D ), confirming the effectiveness of the transaction being financed and the repayment of the loan, with justification for sales prices, expenses, profitability and payback period.

Copies of contracts (agreements) confirming the expenditure and revenue parts of the Business Plan (feasibility study). When providing loans to replenish working capital to large enterprises, when the Bank finances part of the production program, it is possible to provide copies of the main contracts (agreements), mainly confirming the expenditure and revenue parts of the Business Plan.

10. Copies of passports of managers and founders.

11. Documents on the provided security:

a) When pledging real estate:

Title documents and documents confirming ownership of the property;

Documents on the territorial boundaries of the land plot (copy of the drawing of the plot boundaries), issued by the Committee on Land Resources and Land Management;

A certificate from the authority conducting registration and technical inventory of the property, and a floor plan of the property;

b) When pledging vehicles:

Vehicle passport;

Explanation of account 01 “Fixed assets”;

Evaluation by an independent expert on the liquidation (market) valuation of property (appraiser’s act and report).

c) When pledging goods:

Documents confirming the presence and ownership of inventory items, their location and value (warehouse records cards, certificates of warehouse balances, registers of accounting inventory items, specifications of work in progress, technical reports on the release of finished products, statements of movement of inventory items, inventory sheets, invoices, invoices, etc.).

d) When pledging equipment:

Explanation of account 01 “Fixed Assets”, certified by the head and chief accountant of the Pledgor;

Documents confirming ownership of the pledged item (for example, a contract with specifications, layout, shipping documents);

Documents confirming payment of customs duties (for import);

If necessary, documents confirming payment for equipment;

Commissioning certificate or acceptance certificate;

Evaluation by an independent expert on the liquidation (market) valuation of property (appraiser’s act and report).

All property transferred as collateral for a loan must be registered in the book of pledges (Appendix D).

The loan application, along with a full package of necessary documents, is reviewed by credit and legal services. During the consideration of a loan application, the Bank carries out a comprehensive analysis of the borrower’s creditworthiness, assesses its financial stability in order to determine the degree of risk of non-repayment of the loan provided.

Based on the results of reviewing the documents, the loan officer gives a written opinion on the possibility of issuing a loan, which is presented to the credit and investment committee for decision-making.

The decision to grant a loan is made by the Credit Committee taking into account the limits and restrictions established by Sberbank of Russia.

In order to exercise control over the sources of repayment of loan obligations, it is necessary to ensure that the Borrower transfers to the Bank payments under contracts the revenue part of the feasibility study of the loan, including passports of export transactions.

The amount of credit resources provided, the lending regime and debt repayment terms are determined based on the analysis of the business plan, cash flow forecast, financial condition of the Borrower, features of the transaction being financed, taking into account the needs of the Borrower.

The Bank provides loans in rubles and foreign currency. When deciding on the volume of lending in foreign currency, it is necessary to take into account the Borrower’s income in foreign currency, as well as the Borrower’s total cash flow, taking into account the forecast change in the ruble exchange rate to foreign currency for the lending period.

The provision of a loan in the currency of the Russian Federation is carried out by transferring the loan amount to the Borrower’s current account on the basis of his payment order according to the Bank’s payment order.

The provision of a loan in foreign currency to a legal entity is carried out by transferring the loan amount to the Borrower's current foreign currency account on the basis of his payment orders according to the Bank's payment order.

2.2 Analysis of the borrower’s creditworthiness

The creditworthiness of an enterprise primarily depends on the size and regularity of profits. As for the sale of assets (real estate, securities) as a method of repaying a loan, the main danger is that the proceeds from their sale may be significantly less than necessary to repay the debt. The bank must always take into account possible errors and undertake from the client to repay the unrecovered part of the debt at its own expense.

To determine the Borrower's creditworthiness, quantitative (assessment of financial condition) and qualitative risk analysis is carried out.

The purpose of conducting a risk analysis is to determine the possibility, size and conditions of providing a loan.

Assessment of the Borrower's financial condition

The assessment of the Borrower's financial condition is made taking into account trends in changes in the financial condition and factors influencing these changes.

For this purpose, it is necessary to analyze the dynamics of estimated indicators, the structure of balance sheet items, the quality of assets, and the main directions of the enterprise’s economic and financial policy.

When calculating indicators (ratios), the principle of caution is used, that is, recalculation of balance sheet asset items downward based on expert assessment.

To assess the financial condition of the Borrower, three groups of assessment indicators are used:

Liquidity ratios;

Debt to equity ratio;

Turnover and profitability indicators.

Liquidity ratios

They characterize the enterprise’s provision of working capital for conducting business activities and timely repayment of urgent obligations.

The absolute liquidity ratio K1 characterizes the ability to instantly repay debt obligations and is defined as the ratio of cash and highly liquid short-term securities to the most urgent obligations of the enterprise in the form of short-term bank loans, short-term loans and various accounts payable (the total of section V of the balance sheet minus lines 640 - “ deferred income”, 650 – “reserves for future expenses”):

In this case, highly liquid short-term securities mean only government securities and securities of Sberbank of Russia. In the absence of relevant information, line 253 is not taken into account when calculating K1.

Intermediate coverage ratio K2 characterizes the ability of an enterprise to quickly release funds from economic circulation and repay debt obligations. K2 is defined as the ratio:

To calculate this ratio, the groups of items “short-term financial investments” and “accounts receivable (payments for which are expected within 12 months after the reporting date)” are first assessed. These items are reduced by the amount of financial investments in illiquid corporate securities and insolvent enterprises and the amount of bad receivables, respectively.

Current ratio (total coverage ratio) K3 is a general indicator of the solvency of an enterprise, the calculation of which includes in the numerator all current assets, including tangible ones (result of section II of the balance sheet):

To calculate K3, the already mentioned groups of balance sheet items are first adjusted, as well as “accounts receivable (payments for which are expected in more than 12 months)”, “inventories” and “other current assets” for the amount of, respectively, bad receivables, illiquid and hard-to-sell inventories and costs and debit balance on account 83 “Deferred income” (exchange differences).

Debt to equity ratio K4

It is one of the characteristics of the financial stability of an enterprise and is defined as the ratio of equity (the total of Section III of the balance sheet) to the total amount of liabilities for borrowed funds (the total of Sections IV and V of the balance sheet) minus lines 640 - “deferred income”, 650 - “reserves” upcoming expenses”:

Turnover and profitability indicators

The turnover of various elements of current assets and accounts payable is calculated in days based on the volume of daily sales (one-day sales revenue).

Daily sales volume is calculated by dividing sales revenue by the number of days in the period (90, 180, 270 or 360).

Average (per period) values of current assets and accounts payable are calculated as the sum of half the values at the start and end dates of the period and full values for intermediate dates, divided by the number of terms reduced by 1.

Turnover of current assets:

Accounts receivable turnover:

Inventory turnover:

Similarly, if necessary, turnover indicators for other elements of current assets (finished products, work in progress, raw materials and materials) and accounts payable can be calculated.

Profitability indicators are determined as percentages or shares.

Product profitability (or return on sales) K5:

for trade organizations:

Return on investment in the enterprise:

or (11)

The main evaluation indicators are the coefficients K1, K2, K3, K4 and K5. Other indicators of turnover and profitability are used for general characteristics and are considered as additional to the first five indicators.

The assessment of the results of calculations of the five coefficients consists of assigning a category to the Borrower for each of these indicators based on a comparison of the obtained values with the established sufficient ones. Next, the sum of points for these indicators is determined in accordance with their weights.

Sufficient indicator values:

K4 – 1.0 – for all Borrowers, except trade enterprises

0.6 – for trade enterprises

Breakdown of indicators into categories depending on their actual values:

Odds




except trade
for trade
	0.15 and above	nerentab.

Table 1 - Calculation of the sum of points

Index	Actual value	Indicator weight	Calculation of points

The formula for calculating the sum of points S is:

The S value, along with other factors, is used to determine the Borrower's rating.

For the remaining indicators of the third group (turnover and profitability), optimal or critical values are not established due to the high dependence of these values on the specifics of the enterprise, industry and other specific conditions.

Evaluation of the calculation results of these indicators is based mainly on a comparison of their values over time.

Qualitative analysis is based on the use of information that cannot be expressed in quantitative terms. To conduct this analysis, information provided by the Borrower, the security department, and database information are used.

At this stage the risks are assessed:

Industry:

State of the market by industry;

Trends in the development of competition;

Level of government support;

The significance of the enterprise on a regional scale;

Risk of unfair competition from other banks.

Shareholders:

Risk of redistribution of share capital;

Consistency of positions of major shareholders.

Regulation of enterprise activities:

Subordination (external financial structure);

Licensing of activities;

Benefits and risks of their cancellation;

Risks of fines and sanctions;

Law enforcement risks (possibility of changes in the legislative and regulatory framework).

Production and management:

Technological level of production;

Supply infrastructure risks (changes in supplier prices, disruption of supplies, etc.);

Risks associated with banks in which accounts are opened;

Business reputation (accuracy in fulfilling obligations, credit history, participation in large projects, quality of goods and services, etc.);

Quality of management (qualifications, stability of management position, adaptability to new management methods and technologies, influence in business and financial circles).

The final stage of assessing creditworthiness is determining the Borrower's rating, or class.

There are 3 classes of borrowers:

first-class – the lending of which is beyond doubt;

second class - lending requires a balanced approach;

third class – lending is associated with increased risk.

S = 1 or 1.05 – The borrower can be classified as first class creditworthiness;

S more than 1.05, but less than 2.42 – corresponds to the second class.

2.3 Mechanism for short-term lending to legal entities

The first question the bank is interested in is the purpose for which the loan is taken. The purpose of the loan serves as an important indicator of the degree of risk. The bank, for example, avoids issuing loans for speculative transactions, since repayment depends on the outcome of dubious and sometimes illegal transactions and, therefore, carries a high risk. When issuing a loan to a company, the bank takes into account the frequency of bankruptcies in a given industry and is cautious in relation to enterprises operating in unstable industries. When issuing a loan to a joint stock company, the bank must ensure that the loan is taken to fulfill the purposes specified in the company's charter. The purpose also determines the form of the loan.

Short-term loans are provided by the Bank for the following purposes:

Lending to replenish own working capital and finance expenses for core production activities;

Lending for commercial operations, programs and contracts;

Lending to federal and municipal programs;

Overdraft lending;

Investment lending and project financing;

Financing of construction projects;

as well as other purposes provided for by the Bank’s regulatory documents.

Lending to legal entities and individual entrepreneurs for the purpose of repaying their debt on Bank loans and overdue debt to other banks is not allowed.

It is not permitted to issue loans to insiders - legal entities and individual entrepreneurs for the acquisition of shares of the Bank.

A loan agreement providing for a one-time crediting of funds to the borrower’s account;

Agreement on opening a non-revolving credit line, providing for the transfer of funds to the Borrower's account(s) according to the established schedule;

Agreement on opening a non-revolving credit line with a free regime for transferring funds to the Borrower’s account(s);

Agreement on opening a revolving credit line;

General agreement on the opening of a framework credit line, on the basis of which individual loan agreements and/or agreements on the opening of a non-revolving credit line are concluded.

For loans provided to individual entrepreneurs on the basis of Loan Agreements, a monthly principal repayment schedule is mandatory, with the possibility of establishing a grace period for up to three months, during which the loan is not repaid.

When issuing a loan, the source of its repayment must be clearly defined. There are two main sources: from income or from the sale of assets. The bank must check whether the conditions proposed by the client correspond to its real capabilities.

Interest for using the loan is accrued on the amount of actual debt on the loan, usually monthly during the payment period at the rate of 365 days. The Borrower is obliged to repay the debt on interest no later than the specified period by transferring it by payment order to the Bank's account. In case of untimely transfer, the Bank charges a penalty on the amount of unpaid interest, has the right to terminate the loan agreement and submit a collection order to the Borrower’s account. If the amount contributed by the Borrower is not sufficient to repay the penalty (fine, penalty), accrued interest on the loan and the principal debt, then first of all, the penalty (fine, penalty) and interest for using the loan are repaid, and the remaining amount is used to repay the principal debt.

If the borrower has an overdue debt, the bank is obliged to stop issuing new loans to the borrower and begin to collect the debt on the loan by filing a claim with the borrower for the amount of the principal debt, interest for using the loan and penalties within 10 days from the date of formation of the overdue debt.

Interest payments on the loan

Payment of interest for using a loan is made by legal entities monthly or quarterly, and by individual entrepreneurs - monthly.

The interest rate on the loan must not be lower than the minimum rate established by the Rates and Limits Committee.

The interest rate on the loan can be differentiated and may vary depending on the monthly (quarterly) credit turnover on the accounts of the Borrower and/or the Guarantor opened with the Bank (the volume of revenue received by the accounts of the Borrower and/or the Guarantor with the Bank; the volume of credit resources, located in the cover accounts for letters of credit opened with the Bank). The procedure for applying and determining the variable interest rate is established by separate regulatory documents of Sberbank of Russia.

When paying interest quarterly, the Bank independently recalculates the interest rate to bring it to a monthly basis using formula (13):

Where j – annual interest rate for quarterly interest payments, divided by 100;

i –

At the same time, for Borrowers who, in accordance with the decision of the Credit Committee of the Bank, have been assigned the status of “VIP borrowers,” the interest rate upon quarterly payment of interest to bring it to the monthly basis is not recalculated, unless otherwise provided by the Decision of the Committee on Rates and Limits.

If there are several loan accounts under the agreement, interest is calculated in the context of each individual loan account, after which the results obtained are added up to the total amount. The interest received is subject to accounting on the corresponding symbols, Form No. 102-SB.

Commission payments on the loan

When providing loans, the following types of commission payments are provided:

1) Fee for conducting operations on a loan account.

The fee for carrying out transactions on a loan account is part of the interest rate and is used as a technical way of dividing it into two components. The decision to charge a fee for transactions on a loan account can be made by the Bank if the interest rate on the loan exceeds 1.1 of the Bank of Russia refinancing rate established at the time the Credit Committee made the decision on lending (for loans in rubles) or 15% per annum (for loans in foreign currency).

The total amount of fees for transactions on a loan account and the interest rate for using a loan established by the Loan Agreement must not be lower than the minimum rate established by the Committee on Rates and Limits.

The payment for transactions on the loan account is made simultaneously with the payment of interest.

2) Fee for opening a credit line.

Fees may apply when using any lending mode, depending on the complexity and nature of the transactions performed. The bank independently determines the feasibility of charging fees.

The fee is set as a percentage of the credit line limit/loan amount. If the terms of the Credit Documentation provide for a limit on the maximum one-time loan debt, the fee may be calculated based on the size of the specified limit.

The fee is paid in a lump sum before the first use of loan funds.

3) Fee for using the credit line limit.

A fee is charged when opening a revolving line of credit or a non-revolving line of credit with an open drawdown regime.

The fee is set as a percentage per annum of the unused credit line limit.

Payments are made on a monthly or quarterly basis. The deadlines for collecting fees are determined individually, indicating specific dates for payment of fees in the texts of concluded agreements. The frequency and timing of payment is synchronized with the payment of interest on the loan.

4) Fee for resource reservation.

The terms of the Loan Agreement or the Agreement on opening a non-revolving credit line with an established drawdown schedule require payment of a fee for reserving resources in case of violation of the schedule (date) for drawdown of the loan established by the terms of the agreement.

5) Payment in the form of compensation for early repayment of the loan.

Compensation is set as a percentage per annum of the loan amount repaid ahead of schedule for the period from the actual repayment date, as a rule, to the planned repayment date established by the terms of the Agreement.

6) Payment for incomplete fulfillment of the terms of the loan agreement in terms of the requirements for its security. When setting the amount of the fee, taxation features are taken into account, incl. payment of VAT.

Securing loans

A prerequisite for granting a loan is the availability of security for timely and complete fulfillment of obligations by the Borrower.

An important element of a loan transaction is what assets the borrower will be able to pledge as collateral, who owns the collateral, the location of the collateral, storage costs, and how the property offered as collateral is valued. The decision to extend credit should always be based on the merits of the project being financed rather than on the attractiveness of the collateral. Without collateral, a loan can be issued only in cases where the borrower is highly reliable.

The Bank accepts as collateral:

Precious metals;

Securities;

Guarantees and guarantees;

Property assets;

Property rights (claims).

When lending to a legal entity - a small enterprise, in addition to the listed types of security, it is necessary to provide a guarantee from the founder (founders) of the Borrower, who owns a controlling stake (participatory interest in the authorized capital) of the Borrower, and/or individuals who have the ability to exert a significant influence on the activities of the Borrower (based on materials security department checks). A guarantee is issued for the total amount of loan obligations.

In order to reduce credit risks, several forms of loan repayment security can be used simultaneously.

The estimated value of securities is determined based on an independent appraiser.

The estimated value of precious metals is determined by experts by the department carrying out foreign exchange and non-trading operations.

The estimated value of real estate, equipment, vehicles, inventory items is understood as the most probable price for which the property can be sold on a competitive and open market, and can be established on the basis of the conclusion of an independent appraiser who has the right to conduct an appraisal (license).

It is allowed to establish the estimated value on the basis of a documented opinion from an employee of the lending department.

The estimated value of the property pledged is adjusted using an adjustment factor.

Collateral insurance

The property pledged is subject to insurance by the Borrower (Pledger) against the risks of loss (destruction), shortage or damage in cases provided for by the Insurance Rules (required package).

When determining the insured amount under an insurance contract, it is taken into account that the insured amount under an insurance contract must not be lower than the estimated value of the collateral subject to adjustment factors, or not lower than the loan debt and interest due for the period of validity of the insurance contract.

The selection of the insurer is carried out by the Pledgor from the list of insurance companies participating in the insurance of property that is the subject of pledge in Sberbank of Russia.

If you receive a message from the insurance company, from the Borrower, the Pledger, from the media (in any form, including by telephone) about the occurrence of an insured event in relation to the insured collateral, the lending department must send requests to the insurance company no later than the next business day the company (in the absence of its written notification), the Borrower and the Pledgor (if the Pledgor is a third party) about confirmation of the insured event, the list of damaged property, the preliminary amount of damage, etc.

Chapter 3 Short-term lending to individuals

3.1 General conditions for lending to individuals

Loans are provided to individuals - citizens of the Russian Federation over the age of 18, provided that the loan repayment period under the agreement occurs before the age of 75 years.

When providing a loan to the Borrower in an amount not exceeding 100 US dollars (or the ruble equivalent of this amount), and for a period of no more than 6 months, no maximum age limit is established.

Loans are provided to the population for urgent needs (purchase of vehicles, garages, expensive household items, economic establishments, paid medical services, purchase of tourist and sanatorium vouchers and other consumer purposes).

Loans are provided unless otherwise established by other regulatory documents of Sberbank of Russia on lending to individuals:

At the place of registration of the Borrowers. For temporary registration, credits are provided for the duration of the registration;

At the location of the Borrower's employing enterprise, the Bank's client, at the request of this enterprise and subject to the provision of a guarantee to ensure the fulfillment of the Borrower's obligations under the Loan Agreement.

The provision of a loan not at the place of registration of the Borrower is carried out after receiving from the Bank at the place of registration of the Borrower information about the presence (or absence) of debt on loans, credit history, followed by notification of the fact of issuing the loan.

Lending to the Borrower is carried out on the basis of:

A loan agreement providing for a one-time loan;

An agreement on opening a non-revolving credit line establishing the maximum loan amount that the Borrower can receive within a specified period and subject to certain conditions. The loan is issued within the maximum loan amount (issue limit), while the repaid portion of the loan does not increase the free issue limit.

Loans are provided in the currency of the Russian Federation and in foreign currency.

The maximum loan size for each Borrower is determined based on an assessment of his solvency and the provided loan repayment collateral, as well as taking into account his reliability.

A prerequisite for granting a loan is the availability of security for timely and complete fulfillment of obligations by the Borrower.

The Bank accepts as basic collateral:

Guarantees of citizens of the Russian Federation who have a permanent source of income (guarantors are subject to an age limit);

Guarantees of legal entities;

Pledge of real estate (not accepted as the only security, unless otherwise established by other regulatory documents of Sberbank of Russia on lending to individuals);

Pledge of vehicles and other property. It is not permitted to accept as collateral vehicles and property that cannot be foreclosed on in accordance with federal law;

Pledge of measured ingots of precious metals with mandatory storage of the pledged property in the Bank;

Pledge of securities of Sberbank of Russia and government securities;

Pledge of securities of corporate issuers within the risk limits established on them. The procedure for establishing risk limits is determined by Sberbank of Russia;

Guarantees of subjects of the Russian Federation or municipalities.

The Bank has the right to enter into cooperation agreements with third parties - solvent enterprises that provide cash settlement services to the Bank, executive bodies of constituent entities of the Russian Federation, municipalities for the purpose of lending to certain categories of Borrowers (employees of these enterprises, citizens in need of improved housing conditions).

An example of short-term lending to individuals is the “Trust Loan”.

A trust loan is issued without issuing guarantees or collateral and does not require the provision of a certificate of income in the absence of significant changes in the previously provided information.

Terms of loan

Trust loans are provided to individuals at the place of registration, subject to the simultaneous fulfillment of the following conditions:

Having a positive credit history with the Bank;

The Borrower has no debt to the Bank for this type of loan.

The maximum loan amount cannot exceed $1,500 in ruble equivalent.

Loan term – no more than 6 months.

Loans are provided in the currency of the Russian Federation, both in cash and by bank transfer. The maximum loan amount is determined by the bank based on the borrower's solvency.

The period for reviewing documents for issuing a loan is no more than 1 day from the moment the borrower provides a complete package of documents.

To obtain a loan, the borrower provides the bank with the following documents:

1) Application – application form for obtaining a loan;

2) Passport or other document identifying the borrower;

3) A document confirming the amount of income and the amount of deductions made for the last 6 months if, at the time of applying to the bank for a loan, in comparison with the information previously provided to the bank, the borrower experienced significant changes in his social and property status associated with a change in place of work, position, average monthly income, average monthly deductions, etc.

The loan is repaid monthly in equal installments. Interest payments are made at the same time as the loan is repaid.

Interest is paid monthly simultaneously with the repayment of the loan, starting from the 1st day of the month following the month in which the loan or its first part was received.

The last payment is made no later than the date established by the agreement.

If the Borrower's income is expected to decrease during the period of validity of the Loan Agreement, for example, due to reaching retirement age, a payment schedule is drawn up, which provides for the repayment of most of the loan at the initial stage of the agreement. In this case, the amount of payments is established subject to the following conditions:

During the period of working age, the amount of a one-time loan payment together with the maximum amount of interest payment should not exceed the value of Dch1 0.5;

In the period falling on retirement age, the amount of a lump sum loan payment together with the amount of interest payment at the time of retirement age) should not exceed the value of Dch2 0.5.

At the request of the Borrower, repayment of the principal debt and payment of interest can be carried out in annuity or differentiated payments. At the same time, the repayment procedure does not change during the loan repayment period.

For annuity payments:

The monthly annuity payment on the loan (for principal and interest) is determined as follows:

where Pl is the annuity payment on the loan;

T – loan term (in months).

Annuity payments to repay the loan debt (principal and interest) are written off by the Bank from the account on a demand deposit opened by the Borrower with the Bank, monthly on the last working day, starting from the month following the month of receiving the loan, on the basis of a long-term Borrower's instructions (form 190).

The last payment on the loan is made no later than the date of final repayment of the loan established by the Loan Agreement.

If the loan debt is repaid on time, annuity payments are used primarily to repay urgent interest, and the remaining amount is used to repay the principal debt.

For differentiated payments:

The monthly differentiated loan payment (for principal and interest) is determined as follows:

where Pl is a differentiated loan payment;

S – the amount of the loan provided;

T – loan term (in months);

O – loan balance;

D – actual number of calendar days in the payment period.

Repayment of loan debt and payment of interest and penalties is carried out by:

Transfers of funds from the Borrower's deposit accounts on the basis of their written order (one-time - according to form 187 or long-term - according to form 190);

Depositing cash into the cash desk of the Bank/branches of Sberbank of Russia on the basis of a receipt in form 31 or PD-4 (in rubles);

Transfer of funds through communication companies or other credit organizations;

Deductions from the Borrower's salary (at his request).

Repayment of loan debt and payment of interest and penalties in foreign currency is carried out only by bank transfer.

The borrower has the right to repay the loan or part of it early.

In the event of early repayment of part of the loan, the Borrower is obliged to make monthly interest payments on the remaining amount of the debt until the next principal payment is due.

On the day the Borrower makes a payment, the credit operations accounting department, based on the order of the credit operations support department, makes accounting entries of the fact of payment of interest for the use of the loan and/or repayment of the principal debt on it.

The date of repayment of the loan debt (payment of interest, penalties) is the date of receipt of funds at the cash desk or to the account of the Bank (issuing the loan) or the date of debiting funds from the client’s deposit account, if the deposit is opened with the Bank that issued the loan.

The countdown of the period for accrual of interest for the use of a loan begins from the date of formation of the debt on the loan account (not including this date) and ends with the date of repayment of the debt on the loan account (inclusive). Accordingly, for interim payments, the date of payment of interest is included in the period for which this payment is made.

Reflection of accrued interest in accounting is carried out:

On the last working day of the month;

When repaying loan debt;

When crediting overdue interest to accounts within the period established by the Loan Agreement;

When transferring the accounting of accrued interest from balance sheet accounts to off-balance sheet accounts, and vice versa, in the event of a change in the risk group of the loan.

The calculation of the period for accrual of the penalty begins from the date following the date of fulfillment of the obligation established in the Loan Agreement and ends with the date of payment (including this date).

When calculating interest and penalties, the actual number of calendar days in the payment period is taken into account, and the actual number of calendar days in a year (365 or 366, respectively).

The calculation of interest and penalties and rounding of calculated values is carried out in accordance with Methodology No. 1061-r/20/.

The amounts contributed (transferred) by the Borrower to repay the debt under the Loan Agreement are sent, regardless of the purpose of the payment specified in the payment document, in the following order:

To pay a penalty;

To pay overdue interest;

For payment of urgent interest;

To repay overdue loan debt;

To repay urgent loan debt.

In case of early partial repayment of the principal debt on the loan, the amount received from the Borrower is sent first of all, regardless of the purpose of the payment specified in the payment document, to pay urgent interest (on the date of early repayment), and the remaining amount is sent to repay the principal debt (in the absence of overdue loan obligations).

On the last day of the payment period, if the Borrower fails to fulfill (improper fulfillment) of its obligations under the agreement, the department for accounting for credit operations, on the basis of an order from the department for supporting credit operations, transfers the debt on accrued but not paid (overdue) interest and/or on the principal debt to the appropriate accounts for accounting for overdue principal and/or overdue interest.

In case of differentiated payments, on the date established by the Loan Agreement, which is the last day of the payment month, the amount of interest underpaid by the Borrower as of the date of the last debt repayment in the reporting period must be transferred to the account intended for recording overdue interest. Interest accrued for the period from the date following the date of the Borrower's last payment to repay the debt in the reporting period until the date established by the Loan Agreement for the Borrower to fulfill its obligations under the loan in the same period shall not be credited to the account for accounting for overdue interest.

If the Borrower fails to fulfill the obligations to pay annuity payments within the period established by the Loan Agreement, the overdue interest and overdue principal debt, calculated as the difference between the amount of the annuity payment and the overdue interest, are credited to the corresponding balance sheet accounts for accounting for overdue interest and overdue interest. principal debt.

Upon completion of the loan repayment, after the last payment has been received, the employee of the credit operations accounting department writes “Loan repaid” on the personal account card under the last completed line and certifies it with a signature.

At least once a month, the credit operations support department sends to the lending department a memo on repaid loans (list) indicating personal accounts and Borrowers.

Upon completion of the Loan Agreement, the division for support of credit transactions returns the original credit documentation to the lending division.

After receiving the document packages, the loan officer:

Prepares loan documents for transfer to the archive in accordance with the procedure established by the Bank;

Makes a note about the closure of the Loan agreement in the loan agreements registration journal.

Loan debt that is hopeless or recognized as unrealistic for collection in the manner established by the Bank of Russia is written off from the bank’s balance sheet at the expense of the created reserve for possible loan losses, and if it is insufficient, it is charged to bank expenses that do not reduce the tax base when calculating income tax in accordance with with regulation No. 455-3-r/4/.

In exceptional cases, the Bank may, at the request of the Borrower, decide to temporarily establish a quarterly frequency for payment of the principal debt and interest for using the loan for a period of up to 6 months with the conclusion of an additional agreement to the Loan Agreement.

When paying interest quarterly, the Bank recalculates the interest rate to bring it to a monthly basis using formula (17):

Where j – annual interest rate for quarterly interest payments, divided by 100;

i – The annual percentage rate for monthly interest payments divided by 100.

However, quarterly loan repayments are not applicable for annuity payments.

The interest rate on newly issued loans is approved by the Resolution of the Board of Sberbank of Russia.

For servicing the loan account, the Borrower makes a one-time payment (tariff) in the amount of 0 to 3 percent of the loan amount under the agreement.

The size of the one-time payment (tariff) is established:

Credit Committee of Sberbank of Russia - for the lending division of the central office of Sberbank of Russia, branches of Sberbank of Russia in Moscow and their additional offices;

Credit committee of the territorial bank - for the lending division of the territorial bank and all organizationally subordinate branches and additional offices.

3.2 Analysis of the loan application

3.2.1 Required Documentation

Documents provided by the Borrower

To obtain a loan, the Borrower provides the Bank with the following documents:

1) Application – questionnaire (Appendix G);

2) Passport or other document identifying the Borrower, his Guarantor and/or the Pledgor (to be presented);

3) Documents confirming the amount of income and the amount of deductions made by the Borrower and his Guarantor for the last 6 months:

For employees - a certificate from the enterprise where the Borrower and his Guarantor work (Appendix K);

For pensioners - a pension certificate and a certificate from the state social protection authorities. If a pensioner receives a pension through Sberbank, a certificate from the state social protection authorities is not submitted.

Documents on the provided collateral

All owners of joint property accepted as collateral should be required to obtain a notarized consent to pledge it in order to prevent the possibility of the collateral agreement being declared invalid in court. It is allowed to obtain consent from the owners of joint property to pledge it in simple written form, with the exception of real estate.

Other documents provided for by other regulatory documents of Sberbank of Russia on lending to individuals.

At the discretion of the Bank, the amount of income of the Borrower/Guarantor indicated in the certificate of employment may be confirmed by the division of the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Taxes and Duties at the place of permanent residence (registration) of the Borrower/Guarantor.

3.2.2 Procedure for considering the issue of granting a loan

When the Borrower applies to the Bank for a loan, the loan officer finds out the purpose for which the loan is requested, explains the conditions and procedure for granting the loan, and introduces the list of documents required to obtain the loan.

The loan officer checks the documents and information specified in the Application form submitted by the Borrower and the Guarantor, and calculates the solvency of the Borrower and the Guarantor.

When checking the information, the credit officer finds out, using the Database on Borrowers - individuals and requests to other branches of Sberbank of Russia that provided loans, the credit history of the Borrower, the Guarantor, the amount of debt on loans previously received by them, and guarantees provided.

It is advisable for the Guarantors to be individuals who are related to the Borrower: spouses, parents, adult children, adoptive parents, trustees, etc., regardless of their solvency (if they are not the only Guarantors for the loan).

The lending division sends a package of documents to the legal and security divisions of the Bank.

Based on the results of verification and analysis of documents, the legal department and the security department of the Bank draw up written opinions that are transmitted to the lending department.

If real estate, vehicles and other property are accepted as collateral, the lending division may involve a Bank real estate specialist, a subsidiary specialist, or an independent appraiser to determine the estimated value of this property. Based on the assessment results, the specialist draws up an expert opinion, which is transmitted to the lending department.

The assessment and possibility of accepting securities as collateral under the Loan Agreement is determined by the Bank’s specialists carrying out transactions with securities. Based on the assessment results, an expert opinion is drawn up, which is transferred to the lending department.

The loan officer analyzes and summarizes materials submitted from other divisions of the Bank, determines the maximum possible loan size and prepares a conclusion on the possibility of providing a loan.

The loan officer has the right to independently decide to refuse to issue a loan if:

The security department and/or the legal department of the Bank gave negative opinions on the possibility of providing a loan to the Borrower;

During the inspection, facts of providing forged documents or false information were revealed;

There was a negative credit history, which resulted in the Bank carrying out a claim – legal actions for the forced return of overdue debts, write-off of loan debt on loans previously issued to the Borrower;

The Borrower's solvency or the loan repayment security provided does not meet the requirements of the Rules for Lending to Individuals.

In this case, the credit officer sends the Borrower a written notice signed by the head (or other authorized person) of the Bank about the refusal to provide a loan, indicating the reason for the refusal. Preparation and consideration of the issue by the Bank's Credit Committee is carried out in accordance with the regulations of the Bank's Credit Committee. A negative opinion from the lending department with a proposal to refuse to issue a loan may also be submitted to the Bank’s Credit Committee for consideration.

The conclusion of the credit officer, endorsed by the head of the lending department, the conclusions of other divisions of the Bank, and, if necessary, an independent expert are sent to make a decision on granting (refusal to grant) a loan for consideration by the Credit Committee of the Bank or for consideration by the head of the Bank within the powers granted to him.

The decision of the Credit Committee is documented in a protocol indicating all the parameters of the credit transaction.

If the Bank's Credit Committee makes a decision to refuse to issue a loan, the loan officer informs the Borrower about this and returns the documents to him.

If a positive decision is made, the loan officer informs the Borrower about this and begins processing loan documents.

3.2.3 Valuation of collateral and insurance of collateral

The assessment of the solvency of guarantors - individuals is carried out similarly to the assessment of the solvency of the Borrower.

When the Bank accepts only guarantees from individuals (without other collateral) as collateral under the Loan Agreement, including guarantees for partial fulfillment of obligations, it is necessary to provide at least 2 guarantees.

Loans over 25,000 US dollars (or the ruble equivalent of this amount) are provided with the obligatory registration of a pledge of property.

The bank can use one or several forms of collateral.

In this case, the estimated value of the collateral, taking into account adjustment factors, or the amount of total collateral (the sum of the solvency of the guarantors and the estimated value of the collateral, taking into account adjustment factors) must cover the amount of the loan and interest due for its use for a period of at least one year (if the loan provided for a period of up to 1 year - interest for the period established by the Loan Agreement).

The borrower (mortgagor) must insure in favor of the Bank the property pledged as collateral against the risks of loss (destruction), damage in cases provided for by the insurer's Insurance Rules (full package).

3.2.4 Assessment of the Borrower’s solvency

The loan officer determines the Borrower's solvency on the basis of documents confirming the amount of income and the amount of deductions made, and the submitted Application Form.

When providing loans to pensioners receiving a pension through the Bank, the calculation of solvency is carried out based on the funds actually received on his pension deposit (bank card account) from the pension authorities for the last 6 months on the basis of an extract received from the accounting department that carries out subsequent control for deposit operations, or the pension department.

When calculating solvency, all mandatory payments specified in the certificate and application form are deducted from income (income tax, contributions, alimony, compensation for damage, repayment of debt and payment of interest on other loans, the amount of obligations under provided guarantees, payments to repay the cost of purchased in installments goods, etc.). For this purpose, each obligation under the provided guarantee is accepted in the amount of 50% of the average monthly payment for the corresponding principal obligation.

The borrower's solvency is determined as follows:

P = Dh Kt (18)

where Дч – average monthly income (net) for 6 months minus all mandatory payments;

K – coefficient depending on the value of DP;

K = 0.5 with Dch equivalent to 1500 US dollars (inclusive);

K = 0.7 with Dh equivalent to over 1500 US dollars;

t – loan term (in months).

Equivalent income is determined as follows:

If during the expected term of the loan the Borrower enters retirement age, then his solvency is determined as follows:

P = Dch1K1 t1 + Dch2K2 t2 , (20)

where Dch1 is the average monthly income, calculated similarly to Dch;

t1 – lending period (in months) attributable to the Borrower’s working age;

Dch2 – average monthly income of a pensioner (due to the lack of documentary evidence of the size of the Borrower’s future pension, it is taken to be equal to the size of the basic part of the labor pension established by Federal Law No. 173-FZ of December 17, 2001 “On Labor Pensions in the Russian Federation”);

t2 – lending period (in months) attributable to the Borrower’s retirement age;

K1 and K2 are coefficients similar to K, depending on the value of Dch1 and Dch2.

When providing a loan in rubles, solvency is calculated in rubles. When providing a loan in foreign currency, solvency is calculated in US dollars.

3.2.5 Determining the maximum loan amount

The maximum size of the loan provided (Sp) is determined based on the solvency of the Borrower.

The resulting value is adjusted downwards taking into account other influencing factors, namely: the provided loan repayment collateral, the balance of debt under the provided guarantees, the credit history submitted to the Bank for a loan application, etc.

The provided collateral affects the maximum loan amount for the Borrower as follows.

If the total collateral (O) is less than the Borrower's solvency (P), then the maximum amount (So) is determined based on the total collateral:

If the total collateral (O) is greater than the Borrower's solvency (P), then the maximum loan size (So) is determined based on the Borrower's solvency.

3.3 Mechanism for short-term lending to individuals

When a positive decision is made to issue a loan, the lending department draws up loan documents with the Borrower:

Loan agreement (the document underlying the provision of the loan - Loan Agreement, Agreement on opening a non-revolving credit line);

Urgent obligation;

Surety agreement(s);

Pledge agreement(s);

Other documents in accordance with the regulatory documents of Sberbank of Russia, which determine the procedure for providing certain types of loans.

The loan is issued in accordance with the terms of the Loan Agreement, both in cash and by bank transfer by:

Credits to the Borrower's account for a deposit operating in the demand mode;

Credits to the Borrower's bank card account.

A loan in foreign currency is issued only by non-cash transfer to a deposit account operating in the demand mode or to the Borrower’s bank card account.

Loans are not issued by crediting to accounts opened with other commercial banks.

The Borrower is obliged to receive the loan or its first part within 45 days from the date of conclusion of the Loan Agreement.

After the collateral provided for in the Loan Agreement has been properly completed, the Borrower prepares a Term Commitment and an Individual Borrower’s Application for a Loan (hereinafter referred to as the Application) with the lending department, indicating the amount and method of obtaining the loan.

The loan is issued:

In cash – on the day the Borrower submits the Application;

By bank transfer - within two working days after the Borrower submits the Application.

During the term of the Loan Agreement, the lending division:

Monitors the Borrower’s compliance with the terms of the agreement;

Monitors and assesses the credit risk of loan debt for the purpose of its classification in accordance with Regulation No. 455-3-r/4/ and Regulation No. 760-3-r/6/); makes changes to the credit risk group in the System;

Exercises control over the financial condition of the Guarantor - a legal entity;

Considers applications from the Borrower and Guarantor to change the terms of concluded loan documents; formalizes changes in lending conditions in accordance with the decision of the Bank’s Credit Committee or the Credit Committee of Sberbank of Russia;

Enters data on changes in lending conditions into the System;

Promptly notifies the credit operations support unit about changes in the terms of existing Loan agreements and/or Pledge and Guarantee Agreements, including changes in the risk group, and transfers to it with a memo the completed additional loan documentation for accounting and storage;

Takes timely measures to repay problem and overdue debts in accordance with the requirements of Regulation No. 278-2-r/10/ in the part that can be applied to individuals;

Maintains the credit file and upon closure of the Credit Agreement transfers it to the archive.

When the interest rate on existing loan agreements is reduced, the lending department sends a memo to the credit operations support department about changes to the terms of the loan agreements. The memo indicates the date the new rate was established, its size, number and the date of the Bank's Credit Committee or the Credit Committee of Sberbank of Russia to reduce the interest rate on loan agreements.

If the interest rate on existing loan agreements is increased, the lending department, within 3 days after receiving the decision to increase the rate, sends notifications to the Borrower and the Guarantors signed by the head / other authorized person of the Bank; copies of notices are filed in the credit file.

If within 1 month from the date of sending the notice the written consent of any of the Guarantors is not received, the lending division offers the Borrower to make an equivalent replacement of the collateral under the Loan Agreement.

If, after 1.5 months from the date of sending the notice, written consent is not received from any of the Borrower’s Guarantors and, at the same time, the collateral is not replaced, the lending division prepares a conclusion and its proposals for consideration by the Bank’s Credit Committee ( including for loans granted by decision of the head of the Bank within the powers granted to him).

The Bank's Credit Committee can make one of three decisions:

1) do not make changes to the terms of the Loan Agreement (collect payment for the loan on the same terms);

2) increase the interest rate under the agreement;

3) unilaterally (out-of-court) terminate the agreement with the Borrower after 3 months from the date of sending notices about the increase in the interest rate.

The decision to terminate the agreement is made in exceptional cases, taking into account the opinions of the Bank’s legal department and the Bank’s security department.

The decision of the Bank's Credit Committee must be made before the expiration of 2 months from the date of sending the notice to the Borrower and Guarantors.

If the Credit Committee of the Bank makes a decision to maintain the interest rate under the Loan Agreement in the same amount or a decision to terminate the Loan Agreement, the lending department sends the relevant notices to the Borrower and the Guarantors before the expiration of 2 months from the date of sending the first notice (about the increase in the interest rate) to the Borrower and the Guarantors ).

The lending division, no later than the date from which the interest rate on existing loan agreements is increased, sends to the division for support of credit operations an order signed by the head / other authorized person of the Bank to make appropriate changes to the loan agreements, indicating the date from which changes are made, the list of agreements (loan account numbers). The same note indicates loan agreements for which the interest rate does not change.

In the event of an increase in the interest rate under the Loan Agreement, appropriate changes must be made to the terms of the surety agreements, pledge agreements, cooperation agreements, etc., which are formalized in additional agreements.

Regional banks have the right to change the terms of loan agreements concluded with individuals in areas affected by natural disasters, in terms of establishing deferrals of repayment of principal and interest on loans provided to individuals for a period of up to 1 year with a simultaneous extension for this period of validity loan agreements.

Decisions to change the terms of loan agreements are made by the territorial bank on the basis of the Borrower’s application and documents issued by authorized state authorities or local governments confirming the complete or partial loss of property.

Deferred payments for repayment of principal and interest are redistributed proportionally to all subsequent payments until the end of the contract.

Changes in the terms of loan agreements are formalized by an additional agreement.

The Bank's Credit Committee has the right to decide to change the collateral under the Loan Agreement (change of type, amount, etc.).

If the Borrower violates the terms of the Loan Agreement, the lending division (taking into account the legal and security divisions of the Bank) may submit for consideration to the Credit Committee of the Bank, by whose decision the loan was granted, the issue of early collection of the loan amount or termination of the Loan Agreement by the Bank. If the loan is granted by decision of the Bank's manager within the powers granted to him, this issue is also considered by the Bank's Credit Committee.

In the event of the death of the Borrower, the Bank has the right to present its claims to the heirs who accepted the inheritance within the limitation periods established for the relevant claims. Before the heirs accept the inheritance, the Bank's claims may be brought against the executor of the will or against the inherited property.

In the event of the death of the Borrower, the loan debt may be re-issued by an insolvent member of his family with the consent of the latter with the re-issuance of a guarantee and/or collateral.

Chapter 4 Main problems and directions for improving short-term lending

The bank monitors compliance with the terms of the loan agreement, the main purpose of which is to ensure regular payment of installments to repay the loan and interest on the debt. The main problem with short-term lending (as well as long-term) is the risk of non-repayment due to unforeseen developments. This risk arises mainly when lending to legal entities. A bank may pursue a policy of issuing loans only to absolutely reliable borrowers, but then it will miss out on many profitable opportunities. At the same time, if difficulties arise in repaying the loan, it will cost the bank very much. Therefore, a reasonable credit policy is aimed at ensuring a balance between caution and maximum use of all potential opportunities for profitable allocation of resources.

Difficulties with repaying loans most often do not arise accidentally and not immediately. This is a process that develops over time. An experienced bank employee can at an early stage notice signs of the emergence of financial difficulties experienced by a client and take measures to correct the situation and protect the interests of the bank. These measures should be taken as early as possible before the situation gets out of control and losses become irreversible. It should be borne in mind that the bank’s losses are not limited to non-payment of debt and interest. The damage caused to the bank is much greater, and it may be associated with other circumstances:

The bank's reputation is undermined, since a large number of overdue and outstanding loans will lead to a drop in the confidence of depositors and investors;

Administrative costs increase as problem loans require special attention from lending staff;

The threat of qualified personnel leaving is increasing due to reduced opportunities for their stimulation in the context of falling profitability of operations;

Funds may be frozen in non-productive assets;

There is a danger of a counterclaim from the debtor against the bank, which can prove that the bank’s demand to revoke the loan led it to the brink of bankruptcy.

The formation of a system of non-payments in the national economy is determined by the interaction of many factors. Among them, we can highlight those that had an impact on the sharp increase in non-payments, but were of a temporary, transitional nature (for example, the severance of production and financial ties of an enterprise with its partners from neighboring countries, high inflation rates and price liberalization against the backdrop of maintaining strict technological ties, imbalance income and expenditure of the Russian budget), as well as factors that determine the persistence of the payment crisis, its further development and which are the most significant.

The borrowing company, which has a relatively stable financial condition, may find itself drawn into a chain of non-payments by unscrupulous partners and, as a result, will be unable to repay the loan to the bank and pay interest. In the context of the insolvency of a significant part of enterprises, the activation of lending to the real sector conflicts with another important task - maintaining the financial stability of the banking system itself.

Difficulties in repaying loans rarely arise suddenly. As a rule, there are numerous warning signs that suggest that the borrower's financial situation is deteriorating, and that the loan issued to him may not be repaid on time or may even turn into a bad debt.

These warning signs are detected by: analysis of financial statements, personal contacts with the debtor, messages from third parties, information from other departments of the bank.

During the term of the loan, the borrower is required to submit balance sheets, profit and loss statements, cash flow statements and other materials to the bank. Their careful analysis and comparison with past reports can indicate an emerging danger. The bank must pay attention to:

Failure to submit financial reports on time;

A sharp increase in accounts receivable;

Slowdown in turnover of working capital;

Decrease in liquidity ratios;

Decrease in sales volume;

Increase in overdue debts;

Non-payment of taxes and payments to extra-budgetary funds;

Frequent requests to change the loan repayment period;

There is a tendency towards a decrease in the profitability of the enterprise

It is important for the bank to constantly maintain personal contacts with the client: visit the company and its branches, meet with management personnel, which makes it possible to identify the presence of uninstalled equipment, unemployed personnel, and excess inventory. Bank employees should be wary of such facts as:

Changes in behavior or habits of senior management;

A sharp change in relations with the bank, unwillingness to cooperate;

Replacement of key employees;

Poor preparation of financial statements;

Setting unrealistic prices for products;

Creation of speculative reserves.

The bank may be alert to a change in the borrower’s relationship with other partners, which is expressed in receiving inquiries about the borrower’s creditworthiness in connection with his requests for benefits in payment for goods or about the company from its new creditors; notifications to the insurance company about cancellation of insurance due to non-payment of insurance premiums.

Finally, other departments at the bank may provide important information about significant reductions in the customer's bank account balances and the issuance of dishonored checks. If a bad (problematic) loan is identified, measures must be taken immediately to ensure repayment of the loan. The best option is to develop, together with the borrower, an action plan to restore the stability of the company, which may include: selling assets, reducing overhead costs, changing the marketing strategy, changing management and appointing new people to key positions.

The Central Bank of the Russian Federation (Bank of Russia) proposes the following measures to create favorable conditions for the development of short-term lending:

- Simplifying the technology of small business lending operations . The bank’s goal is to “draw” small and medium-sized businesses into the banking system, take them out of the “gray zone,” and also make sure that banks know how to work with small businesses so that it is profitable, cheap, and not too risky.

Simplifying the technology of consumer lending operations. There are about a dozen banks in Russia that are actively working with consumer lending programs. The main problem today is that issuing a loan is a whole procedure. There are a number of banks that work only with large clients, issue 5-10 loans per month, but since the loans are large, the income is good. The labor costs for small loans are the same, but the returns are small. Thus, they can only pay off with huge turnover, and it is unprofitable for banks to engage in small loans. Accordingly, the approaches should be different - both in terms of the technique of issuing loans, and in terms of creating reserves for losses, and so on. Mass loans must be technologically simple.

Creation of a credit bureau institution. A credit bureau is a database of borrowers' credit history. In Russia, everything is already known about large borrowers. However, credit bureaus are needed mainly not for these borrowers, but for those who are entering the market for the first time, for small and medium-sized businesses, and the like. Therefore, legislation on credit bureaus is currently being developed, there are several alternative options, and the Bank of Russia is taking part in their discussion.

In the context of the difficult financial situation of the majority of clients, the ability and ability to assess promising areas of lending and at the early stages to identify problems that arise for potential borrowers is of particular importance for the banking system. In this situation, a timely step is the work begun by the Bank of Russia to provide credit institutions with analytical materials based on the results of monitoring enterprises and their demand for banking services.

Analysis of the economic situation, investment and financial situation in the context of sectors of the economy and individual regions of the country will contribute to a better assessment of the financial situation of clients of credit institutions, and information about the needs of enterprises for banking services will allow credit institutions to take a more conscious approach to the development of certain banking products. By supplementing their own information with the results of enterprise monitoring, credit institutions will receive the most clear idea of both the state of the real sector of the economy and the financial position of specific business entities.

Conclusion

In conclusion, we will draw conclusions about the work.

The concept of credit relations is broader than the relations associated with the movement of loan capital.

The main participants in the credit market are:

Specialized intermediaries represented by financial institutions that directly attract (accumulate) funds, convert them into loan capital and then temporarily transfer it to borrowers on a repayable basis for a fee in the form of interest;

Borrowers, represented by individuals, legal entities and the state, lacking financial resources.

The lending process is associated with the action of numerous and diverse risk factors that can lead to non-repayment of the loan within the stipulated period.

Therefore, the provision of loans by the bank is conditioned by a change in the client’s creditworthiness. To determine the Borrower's creditworthiness, quantitative (assessment of financial condition) and qualitative risk analysis is carried out. The purpose of conducting a risk analysis is to determine the possibility, size and conditions of a loan.

To reduce the risk of non-repayment of a loan, careful analysis requires not only the issues of the borrower’s creditworthiness, but also its collateral. The security can be any property owned by the borrower, most often real estate or securities. If the borrower violates its obligations, this property becomes the property of the bank, which, in the process of its sale, compensates for the losses incurred. In domestic conditions, the problem when applying for secured loans is the procedure for assessing the value of property due to the incompleteness of the process of formation of the mortgage and stock markets. A surety also acts as security. The economic attractiveness of this type of security lies in the fact that the property of the guarantor is added to the property from which the creditor can receive satisfaction.

Non-performing loans pose a big problem.

Control over the implementation of the loan agreement is an important and integral element of all lending activities of the bank. In order to reduce the riskiness of credit operations and avoid negative situations associated with the emergence of difficulties in the process of loan repayment, it is necessary, in my opinion, to pay close attention to two main factors: shortcomings in the work of the bank’s credit personnel and inappropriate use of the loan.

Regarding the first factor, it is necessary to eliminate as much as possible the following violations: insufficiently strict attitude towards the borrower; unprofessional financial analysis; unfair loan structuring; lack of sufficient security; errors in loan documentation; superficial control over the borrower during the loan repayment period. Particular attention should be paid to factors indicating a deterioration in the financial condition of the borrower, as a result of which the issued loan may not be repaid on time or turn into a bad debt.

In my opinion, the successful functioning of the personal lending system, the promotion of new products and banking services should be carried out taking into account the needs of various age and social groups of the population for loans: for educational purposes; for consumer purposes for young families; for the purchase of consumer goods and urgent needs for a mortgage, etc. .

And to resolve these issues, it would be necessary to pay attention to increasing the role of the Savings Bank in lending, to the importance of creating a favorable legal environment, including: creating conditions for protecting the rights of the owner, obtaining cheaper loans for the population.

In-depth penetration into the essence of the problem revealed by this work, the study of its financial and economic activities of subjects in the practice of lending to individuals, allows us to conclude that lending to individuals is one of the main activities of Sberbank to achieve its main strategic goals as a promising market segment placement of resources.

In my opinion, it is the development of lending that should be the starting point from which the economic growth of the material and financial condition of the population, and therefore the state as a whole, will begin.

The concept of bank development for the coming five years, adopted at the meeting of Sberbank shareholders in June 2002, introduces new aspects into the discussion of these topics. This foundational document outlines measures to reform the bank in the coming years.

Summarizing the analysis of the Concept, it should be noted that until 2005 the bank intends to maintain a first-class credit institution.

As the economic situation in the country stabilizes and the effective demand of the population grows, it is planned to increase the share of loans to individuals in the Bank’s loan portfolio by increasing the volume of loans and services provided to meet the growing needs of the population. The bank expects to increase its share in the consumer lending market to 30%, while the volume of lending to individuals should grow at least twice.

The growth of the loan portfolio will occur mainly due to an increase in the volume of consumer lending for urgent needs.

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Formulas for calculating indicators are given in relation to the forms of annual financial statements approved by the Order of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated January 13, 2000. No. 4n.

During the year, enterprises may not attribute the amounts of exchange rate differences directly to account 80 “Profits and losses”, but take them into account in the subaccount “Exchange differences” of account 83 “Deferred income”. The debit balance on this account is reflected in the balance sheet under the item “other current assets”. At the end of the reporting year, the balance of exchange rate differences (both debit and credit) is written off to account 80 “Profits and losses”, except for amounts that are not subject to write-off in accordance with legislative and regulatory acts (Order of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated December 28, 1994 No. 173 “On application of the Chart of Accounts for accounting of financial and economic activities of enterprises and Instructions for its application”).

Individual entrepreneurs and enterprises are often faced with a situation where they urgently need finance in order to avoid late payments, debts and problems with business partners. Short-term lending allows you to quickly solve this problem.

Short-term lending to legal entities is represented by three main products in banks, such as:

Overdraft is the most popular option for short-term lending to legal entities, which allows you to close financial transactions without debt or delays if there is not enough money in the account. This type of lending is available to clients with a stable financial position and allows enterprises to increase their operating efficiency. Sberbank offers “Overdraft with a general limit”, “Individual overdraft”, as well as “Express overdraft” for legal entities.
Targeted short-term loan, for example, issued for the purchase of equipment or payment of wages to employees, or replenishment of current assets. The decision to issue such a loan is made quickly enough; clients who have proven themselves well at the bank are treated with the utmost loyalty, and registration does not require a large number of certificates and documents. But if the overdraft does not imply a specific purpose for the amount issued, then the funds issued in the form of this targeted loan can be spent exclusively for the stated purpose, since banking organizations control this point.
The option of short-term credit lines is not as popular, but is also used. Sberbank organizes credit lines for legal entities, including such large clients as Lukoil, Baltic Forwarding Company and others. But most often, not short-term, but revolving credit lines are used, which allow you to attract additional financing for current activities at any time.

Benefits and risks of short-term lending

Short-term lending to legal entities allows you to quickly receive the amount that an enterprise urgently needs. With a good credit history and no debt, applying for a loan is as simple as possible.

By issuing a short-term loan, the bank takes on some risk, which is compensated by high lending rates. The limit of such a loan will not be high.

Overdraft as a banking product is most popular among Sberbank clients, but bank specialists can offer various solutions to the problem of insufficient financial resources. A loan that is repaid with funds deposited into the account, with an interest rate that is revised every month, becomes a convenient opportunity not to postpone the payment of financial obligations, even if there is no money in the account at the moment.