Unemployment at different periods of time differs in structure, scale and duration of impact on the economy. Unemployment and employment form the labor market. If from the entire population of the state we subtract those who are still or no longer able to work (children, adolescents under the legal age, pensioners and disabled people, who are serving in the army and police, are in prison, studying full-time in an educational institution), then we obtain the number of economically active population of the state. If we subtract from this number all the employed (officially employed), then the remainder will be the number of unemployed citizens, including those who, without a job, are actively looking for one and are ready to start working on it.

The following types of unemployment are distinguished:

TEMPORARY unemployment occurs due to the personnel of an organization changing their previous place of work to a new place of work in another organization. As a rule, this happens for personal reasons, due to: a change of place of residence, profession, conflict with management or work colleagues. The time to look for a new job is the time to be unemployed. Maximum awareness of the availability of vacancies and employment conditions for them allows you to control the level of such unemployment. This type of unemployment in market conditions is an everyday reality and does not lead to social tensions in society, since it reflects the desire of a particular specialist to improve his employment conditions.

STRUCTURAL unemployment occurs due to the special influence of scientific and technological progress on the economic development of society and, above all, on the production process, which leads to: regular renewal of professions (the death of some and the emergence of new ones - due to changes in the quality of labor); to changes in the location of productive forces (closing or opening of organizations in different industries and regions). Structural unemployment affects the qualifications, work experience, work skills, professional knowledge, and the specifics of the profession of any specialist or manager. The level of such unemployment increases sharply during periods of economic transformation, when there is a change (reorganization) in the structure of the economy, inter-sectoral proportions, and the emergence of new technologies and new equipment. Such processes cause a mismatch in the level of qualifications of personnel in connection with the new requirements of the time, which is why a certain part of the personnel of organizations (market participants) are not always able to reorient themselves to the required new specialties, which leads them to the position of unemployed. Retraining, advanced training, acquiring a new profession are the main, reasonable options for getting out of this situation for every specialist. Compared to temporary unemployment, structural unemployment is more complex and longer lasting, although in practice they often operate against each other. This allows us to talk about the peculiarities of the natural level of unemployment that develops under their influence in each specific region and industry over a certain time. Reducing structural unemployment can only be achieved by the state, which must, first of all, actively promote the processes of training the population (retraining for new professions) in changing economic and social conditions.

SEASONAL unemployment is caused by natural processes, that is, the specific climatic conditions of behavior in each specific region of the state at a certain time of the year. These are, first of all, the features of the development of agricultural production, the presence of climatic resorts and tourist centers, inland navigation and fishing, and the like. Seasonal unemployment can also occur against a background of temporary or structural unemployment. Therefore, all together they form NATURAL unemployment, which does not depend on the phase of the economic development cycle of the state.

CYCLICAL unemployment occurs during a period of economic crisis in the state economy and is associated with a sharp drop in production. The labor market is most sensitive to cyclical unemployment, since it affects broad layers of specialists and managers, primarily those employed in production. Since the economy is an interconnected system, its influence extends to almost the entire sectoral and regional economy of the state. At the same time, many generations of representatives of different specialties suffer significantly, the continuity of the transfer of professional experience is disrupted, professional specific skills are lost, hierarchy - as a management principle ceases to operate, since many, many organizations go bankrupt or suspend their activities for an indefinite period. The demand for work reaches its maximum level, there is practically no supply from employers, and it takes time to regulate these levels in proportions acceptable to the economy. Only after the depression phase and the recovery phase, during the recovery phase during a production crisis, cyclical unemployment recedes and turns into structural unemployment, which reflects the period (phase) of the state’s economy entering new options for its development.

In order to get an idea of ​​what the actual level of current unemployment is, we use the calculation of the indicator - the “unemployment rate”, which is determined by the ratio of the number of unemployed (in the numerator) to the number of the economically active part of the population (in the denominator), as a percentage. Namely, the “unemployment rate” allows you to navigate actions aimed at finding a new job, suspend or develop them most intensively. If the “unemployment rate” increases, then this means: the curtailment of production, the bankruptcy of organizations, a fall in the level of job offers, a tendency for wages to be reduced or preserved at a certain level with a simultaneous increase in the executive load of the work performed, the curtailment of social and incentive payments, rising prices for goods and services. If, however, the “unemployment rate” indicator remains low and tends to decrease, then this means: an increase in production, an expansion of job offers from employers, a trend of rising wages and additional material payments for the work of personnel in organizations, the emergence of new business participants in the market, revitalizing the employment process in the market. Therefore, the presence of unemployment in the market is a constant and common phenomenon. The only question is what level the unemployment rate reaches, and what factors dominate the labor market, which determine one or another type of unemployment.

At the same time, a moderate level of unemployment (unemployment rates) in the state’s economy can be considered as a necessary reality, which allows:

Determine the reserve of able-bodied workers who are in search of work, being unemployed, who can always be used at the required time according to certain parameters of any specialty or profession.

Increase the discipline and intensity of work of personnel in any organization, due to the fact that any “violator and troublemaker” can always be replaced by a new specialist from among the unemployed in the labor market.

Use unemployment as a regulator of employment in the structure of market relations by: maintaining the necessary proportions in the intersectoral and regional division of social labor; maintaining a constant and necessary professional form of perception of the dynamics of development of the state economy among the economically active part of society, primarily through the prism of socio-psychological relations.

The level of unemployment is influenced by: objective factors (economic priorities of the state, financial condition of the industry and region, monetary circulation, demography and quality of education), as well as subjective factors (level of wages and pensions, gender and age composition of personnel of organizations, consumer basket of the family and population, motivation to work and incentives at work).

CONSEQUENCES OF UNEMPLOYMENT:

The living conditions of society's citizens worsen, since unemployment benefits are usually less than previously received wages.

Revenues to the budget are decreasing, which negatively affects its expenditures, especially those allocated to social assistance to the population, which reduces their standard of living.

Finding a job becomes more difficult for those who have not yet worked, do not have work experience or work experience, as well as for older people.

Particularly poorly and narrowly qualified specialists suffer, since the employer is interested in the qualifications and versatility of the employee.

The load on the existing personnel of organizations increases, due to the desire of the administration of organizations to lure personnel from other organizations and fire them for any disobedience rather than engage in their formation (raise, teach, and so on).

The number of applicants for the same specialty or position is increasing.

Every specialist has a situation related to: a change of profession; with the need to master a related profession; while maintaining qualifications at a high level.

A feeling of uncertainty about the future is created, and the socio-psychological climate of society worsens.

The crime rate of society and the shadow market of the economy are growing.

The political instability of society is increasing, slogans demand radical changes, often at any cost.

Main categories of the population

An important phenomenon characterizing macroeconomic instability and having a cyclical nature of development is unemployment. To determine who the unemployed are, we should consider the main categories of the country's population.

From a macroeconomic point of view, the population (population - POP) of a country is divided into two groups: those included in the labor force (labor force - L) and those not included in the labor force (non-labor force - NL): POP = L + NL.

The “non-labor force” category includes people who are not engaged in social production and do not seek to get a job. The following population groups are automatically included in this category: children under 16 years of age; persons serving sentences in prisons; people in psychiatric hospitals and disabled people. (These categories of people are called the “institutional population” because they are supported by state institutions.) In addition, the category not included in the labor force includes people who, in principle, could work, but do not do so for various reasons, i.e. .e. who do not want or cannot work and are not looking for work: full-time students (because they have to study); those who have retired (because they have already served their time); housewives (because although they work full time, they are not in social production and do not receive payment for their work); tramps (because they simply don’t want to work); people who have stopped looking for work (who were looking for work but were desperate to find it and therefore dropped out of the labor force).

The “labor force” category includes people who can work, want to work, and are actively looking for work. Those. these are people who are either already employed in social production or who do not have a job, but are making special efforts to find it. Thus, the total workforce is divided into two parts:

• employed (employed - E) - i.e. having a job, and it doesn’t matter whether the person is employed full-time or part-time, full-time or part-time. A person is also considered busy if he does not work for the following reasons: a) is on vacation; b) is sick; c) on strike and d) due to bad weather;
• unemployed (unemployed - U) - i.e. those who do not have a job but are actively looking for one. Finding a job is the main criterion that distinguishes the unemployed from people not included in the labor force.

Thus, the total workforce is: L = E + U.

(At the same time, military personnel on active military service, although formally classified as employed, are, as a rule, not taken into account in the total labor force when calculating the unemployment rate. This indicator is usually (unless specifically stated) calculated only for the civilian sector of the economy .)

Indicators of the number of employed and unemployed, the size of the labor force and the number of those not included in the labor force are indicators of flows. There are constant movements between the categories of “employed”, “unemployed” and “not included in the labor force” (Fig. 1.). Some of the employed lose their jobs, becoming unemployed. A certain proportion of the unemployed find work by becoming employed. Some of the employed quit their jobs and leave the public sector of the economy (for example, by retiring or becoming a housewife), and some of the unemployed, in despair, stop looking for work, which increases the number of those not included in the labor force. At the same time, some people who are not involved in social production begin an active search for work (unemployed women; students who have graduated from higher educational institutions; tramps who have come to their senses). Typically, in a stable economy, the number of people losing their jobs is equal to the number of people actively looking for one.

The main indicator of unemployment is the unemployment rate. The unemployment rate (rate of unemployment - u) is the ratio of the number of unemployed to the total labor force (the sum of the number of employed and unemployed), expressed as a percentage: u = U/L*100% or u = U/(E+U)* 100%.

Another important indicator of labor statistics is the labor force participation rate, which is the ratio of the labor force to the total adult population, expressed as a percentage:

labor force participation rate = labor force / adult population

Causes and types of unemployment

There are three main causes of unemployment:

1. loss of job (dismissal);
2. voluntary resignation from work;
3. first appearance on the labor market.

There are three types of unemployment: frictional, structural and cyclical.

Frictional unemployment (from the word “friction” - friction) is associated with finding a job. Obviously, finding a job takes time and effort, so a person waiting or looking for a job is unemployed for some time. A feature of frictional unemployment is that ready-made specialists with a certain level of professional training and qualifications are looking for work. Therefore, the main reason for this type of unemployment is imperfect information (information about the availability of vacancies). A person who loses his job today usually cannot find another job tomorrow.

Frictional unemployed include:

1. dismissed from work by order of the administration;
2. those who resigned of their own free will;
3. awaiting reinstatement to their previous job;
4. those who have found a job but have not yet started it;
5. seasonal workers (out of season);
6. people who have entered the labor market for the first time and have the level of professional training and qualifications required in the economy.

Frictional unemployment is not only an inevitable phenomenon, since it is associated with natural trends in the movement of the labor force (people will always change jobs, trying to find a job that best suits their preferences and qualifications), but also desirable, since it contributes to a more rational placement labor force and higher productivity (favorite work is always more productive and creative than the one that a person forces himself to do).

The level of frictional unemployment is equal to the ratio of the number of frictional unemployed to the total workforce expressed as a percentage: u friction = U friction /L*100%.

Structural unemployment is caused by structural changes in the economy, which are associated with a) changes in the structure of demand for products of different industries and b) changes in the sectoral structure of the economy, the cause of which is scientific and technological progress. The structure of demand is constantly changing. Demand for the products of some industries increases, which leads to an increase in the demand for labor, while the demand for the products of other industries decreases, which leads to a decrease in employment, layoffs of workers, and an increase in unemployment. Over time, the industrial structure of production also changes: some industries become obsolete and disappear, such as the production of steam locomotives, carriages, kerosene lamps and black-and-white televisions, while others appear, such as the production of personal computers, VCRs, pagers and mobile phones. The set of professions required in the economy is changing. The professions of chimney sweep, glass blower, lamplighter, coachman, and traveling salesman disappeared, but the professions of programmer, image maker, disc jockey, and designer appeared.

The reason for structural unemployment is the discrepancy between the structure of the labor force and the structure of jobs. This means that people with professions and skill levels that do not meet modern requirements and the modern industry structure, being fired, cannot find a job. In addition, the structural unemployed include people who have entered the labor market for the first time, including graduates of higher and secondary specialized educational institutions, whose profession is no longer required in the economy. The structural unemployed also include people who have lost their jobs due to changes in the structure of demand for products from different industries. At different periods of time, the demand for the products of some industries increases, so production expands and additional workers are needed, while the demand for the products of other industries falls, production decreases, and workers are laid off.

The level of structural unemployment is calculated as the ratio of the number of structural unemployed to the total workforce, expressed as a percentage: u structure = U structure /L*100%.

Since both frictional and structural unemployment are associated with job searches, these types of unemployment belong to the category of “search unemployment.”

Structural unemployment is longer lasting and more costly than frictional unemployment, since it is almost impossible to find work in new industries without special retraining and retraining. However, like frictional unemployment, structural unemployment is an inevitable and natural phenomenon (i.e. associated with natural processes in the development and movement of labor) even in highly developed economies, since the structure of demand for products from different industries is constantly changing and the sectoral structure of the economy is constantly changing in connection with scientific and technological progress, and therefore structural changes are constantly occurring and will always occur in the economy, provoking structural unemployment. Therefore, if there is only frictional and structural unemployment in the economy, then this corresponds to a state of full employment of the labor force, and the actual output in this case is equal to the potential output.

Consequences of unemployment

The presence of cyclical unemployment is a serious macroeconomic problem, serves as a manifestation of macroeconomic instability, and evidence of underemployment of resources.

There are economic and non-economic consequences of unemployment, which manifest themselves both at the individual level and at the societal level.

The non-economic consequences of unemployment are the psychological and social and political consequences of job loss. At the individual level, the non-economic consequences of unemployment are that if a person cannot find a job for a long time, this often leads to psychological stress, despair, nervous (even suicide) and cardiovascular diseases, and family breakdown. The loss of a stable source of income can push a person to crime (theft and even murder) and antisocial behavior.

At the level of society, this, first of all, means an increase in social tension, up to and including political upheavals. It is no coincidence that American President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, explaining the reason for the development and implementation of the “New Deal” policy to get out of the Great Depression, the main problem of which was huge unemployment (every fourth person was unemployed in the United States during this period), wrote that by doing so he wanted "prevent a revolution of despair." Indeed, military coups and revolutions are associated precisely with a high level of social and economic instability. In addition, the social consequences of unemployment are an increase in the level of morbidity and mortality in the country, as well as an increase in the crime rate. The costs of unemployment should also include those losses incurred by society in connection with the costs of education, vocational training and providing a certain level of qualifications to people who, as a result, are unable to apply them, and, therefore, recoup them.

The economic consequences of unemployment at the individual level are the loss of income or part of the income (i.e., a decrease in current income), as well as the loss of qualifications (which is especially bad for people in advanced professions) and therefore a decrease in the chances of finding a high-paying, prestigious job in the future (i.e. .e. a possible decrease in the level of future income).

The economic consequences of unemployment at the level of society as a whole consist in underproduction of the gross national product, the lag of actual GDP from potential GDP. The presence of cyclical unemployment (when the actual rate of unemployment exceeds its natural rate) means that resources are not fully used. Therefore, actual GDP is less than potential GDP (GDP at full employment of resources). The lag (gap) of actual GDP from potential GDP (GDP gap) is calculated as the percentage ratio of the difference between actual and potential GDP to the value of potential GDP:

GDP gap = (Y - Y*)/Y* * 100%,

Where Y is actual GNP, and Y* is potential GDP.

The relationship between the lag in output (at that time GNP) and the level of cyclical unemployment was empirically derived, based on a study of US statistical data over a number of decades, by the economic adviser to President J. Kennedy, the American economist Arthur Okun. In the early 60s, he proposed a formula that showed the relationship between the gap between actual output and potential output and the level of cyclical unemployment. This relationship is called "Oken's law".

The formula for the GDP gap is written on the left side of the equation. On the right side, u is the actual unemployment rate, u* is the natural unemployment rate, therefore (u - u*) is the cyclical unemployment rate, ?? is the Okun coefficient (??> 0). This coefficient shows by what percentage the actual output is reduced compared to the potential output (i.e. by how many percent the gap increases) if the actual unemployment rate increases by 1 percentage point, i.e. this is the sensitivity coefficient of the GDP lag to changes in the level of cyclical unemployment. For the US economy in those years, according to Okun's calculations, it was 2.5%. For other countries and other times it may be numerically different. The minus sign in front of the expression on the right side of the equation means that the relationship between actual GDP and the level of cyclical unemployment is inverse (the higher the unemployment rate, the lower the value of actual GDP compared to potential).

The lag of actual GDP of any year can be calculated not only in relation to potential output, but also in relation to the actual GDP of the previous year. A formula for such a calculation was also proposed by A.Ouken:

where Yt is the actual GDP of a given year, Yt - 1 is the actual GDP of the previous year, i.e. on the left side of the equation is written the formula for the lag of GDP by year, u t is the actual unemployment rate of a given year, u t – 1 is the actual unemployment rate of the previous year, 3% is the growth rate of potential GNP, conditioned by:

a) population growth, b) increase in capital ratio and c) scientific and technological progress; 2 is a coefficient that shows how much actual GDP decreases when the unemployment rate increases by 1 percentage point (this means that if the unemployment rate increases by 1 percentage point, actual GDP decreases by 2%). This coefficient was calculated by Okun based on an analysis of empirical (statistical) data for the American economy, so it may be different for other countries.

State policy to combat unemployment

Since unemployment is a serious macroeconomic problem and is an indicator of macroeconomic instability, the state is taking measures to combat it. For different types of unemployment, since they are due to different reasons, different measures are used. Common to all types of unemployment are the following measures:

• payment of unemployment benefits;
• creation of employment services (employment bureaus).

Specific measures to combat frictional unemployment are:

• improving the system for collecting and providing information on the availability of available jobs (not only in a given city, but also in other cities and regions);
• creation of special services for these purposes.

To combat structural unemployment, measures such as:

• creation of public services and institutions for retraining and retraining;
• assistance to private services of this type.

The main means of combating cyclical unemployment are:

• carrying out a countercyclical (stabilization) policy aimed at preventing deep declines in production and, consequently, mass unemployment;
• creation of additional jobs in the public sector of the economy.

3.4.3. Employment and unemployment. Types of unemployment

Employment is a phenomenon that is considered from two points of view.

1. Theoretical point- activities of the working population related to the satisfaction of personal and social needs that generate income.

2. Practical point is the ratio between the number of working-age population and the number of employed people. This employment characterizes the degree of use of society's labor resources.

The indicator of population employment is the employment rate. It is defined as the percentage of employed people to the total working-age population as a percentage.

Full employment- the maximum possible replenishment of the total labor potential. The total number of employed and unemployed people is the labor force (“economically active population”).

Unemployment- a cyclical phenomenon, which is expressed in the excess of the supply of labor over the demand for it (or it is “excess labor”).

People who have lost their jobs as a result of being laid off;

People who voluntarily left their jobs;

People who entered the labor market after a break;

Newcomers to the labor market.

Unemployment rate- determined as a percentage - this is the ratio of the number of officially registered unemployed to the total number of the labor force.

Natural rate of unemployment- the unemployment rate, which corresponds to the appropriate level of full employment in the economy (6-8%).

The main reasons for the existence of natural unemployment:

1) an increase in the time it takes to search for work under the unemployment insurance system;

2) the stability (rigidity) of wages gives rise to “unemployment of expectation.”

It arises as a result of an increase in the level of real wages below its equilibrium value.

“Rigidity” of wages leads to a relative shortage of jobs: workers become unemployed, because at a given level of wages, the supply of labor L 2 exceeds the demand for labor L 1 and people simply “wait” for the opportunity to get a job at a fixed rate of payment.

Types of unemployment

Frictional unemployment- is temporary unemployment associated with a voluntary or forced search or expectation of work.

Structural unemployment(or technological) is the release of labor under the influence of structural changes in the economy, changing the demand for individual professions, specialties and the supply of qualified labor.

Cyclical unemployment- this is the release of labor caused by a general decline in production as a phase of the economic cycle (conjunctural, actual, natural unemployment).

Long-term unemployment- these are persons who are forced to work part-time or are on administrative leave.

Seasonal unemployment- caused by seasonal unevenness.

Previous

Main criterion division of unemployment the species isreason for job loss (temporary unemployment).

There are three main causes of unemployment:

1) loss of job (dismissal);

2) voluntary resignation from work;

3) initial appearance on the labor market.

There are three types of unemployment: frictional, structural and cyclical.

Some employees resign of their own free will due to a change in professional interests or place of residence. Therefore, frictional unemployment has predominantly voluntary And short character. For example, you quit your job to move from a low-paying job to a high-paying job.

Frictional unemployed people include:

those who quit at your own request;

waiting recovery at your previous job;

found work, but not yet started To her;

seasonal workers(out of season);

first appeared on the labor market with the level of professional training and qualifications required in the economy.

Frictional unemployment is not only a phenomenon inevitable, since it is associated with natural trends in the movement of the labor force (people will always change jobs, trying to find a job that best suits their preferences and qualifications), but also desirable, as it contributes to a more rational allocation of labor and higher productivity (favorite work is always more productive and creative than the one that a person forces himself to do).

Level frictional unemployment equal to the percentage ratio of the number of frictional unemployed to the total workforce:

Levelfrictional unemployment (u f ) =

As a rule, frictional unemployment affects 2-3% of the economically active population.

Structural unemployment due to structural changes in economics, which are related:

with change structures of demand for products of different industries – the demand for the products of some industries increases, production expands, which leads to an increase in the demand for labor in these industries, while the demand for the products of other industries falls, which leads to a reduction in employment, layoffs of workers and an increase in unemployment;

with changes sectoral structure of the economy, the cause of which is scientific and technological progress - over time, some industries become obsolete and disappear, such as the production of steam locomotives, carriages, kerosene lamps and black and white televisions, while others appear, such as the production of personal computers, VCRs, pagers and mobile phones. The set of professions required in the economy is changing. The professions of chimney sweep, glass blower, lamplighter, coachman, and traveling salesman disappeared, but the professions of programmer, image maker, disc jockey, and designer appeared.

People who have professions and skill levels that do not meet modern requirements and the modern industry structure, being fired, cannot find a job. The structural unemployed therefore also include people who have entered the labor market for the first time, including graduates of higher and secondary specialized educational institutions, whose profession is no longer required in the economy. Cause structural unemployment – mismatch between the structure of the labor force and the structure of jobs. Structural unemployment longer and more expensive than friction. On the one hand, an increase in demand for the products of industries where it is still low may occur after an indefinitely long period of time or even not occur at all, and on the other hand, finding work in new industries generated by scientific and technological progress, without special retraining And retraining

Level almost impossible. unemployment structural

is calculated as the ratio of the number of structural unemployed to the total workforce, expressed as a percentage:u Structural unemployment rate ( ) =

c

Since both frictional and structural unemployment are associated with job loss and people being “between jobs” or entering the labor market for the first time, these types of unemployment fall under the category of “search unemployment.” inevitable And However, like frictional unemployment, structural unemployment is a phenomenon natural

even in highly developed economies, as it is associated with natural processes in the development and movement of labor. The structure of demand for products from different industries is constantly changing and the sectoral structure of the economy is also constantly changing in connection with scientific and technological progress, and therefore structural changes are constantly occurring and will always occur in the economy, provoking structural unemployment. Therefore, if there is only frictional and structural unemployment in the economy, then this corresponds to the state labor force, and the actual volume of output in this case is equal to the potential.

5.3. Unemployment: causes, types, consequences

The next sign of macroeconomic instability is the existence and periodic growth of unemployment in society, that is, a situation where part of the working-age population does not find work. An unemployed person is someone who wants and can work, but does not have a job.
In Russia, there are certain criteria by which a person is officially classified as unemployed: he must live in the Russian Federation for more than 6 months, have no income, be registered with the employment service, and be ready to start a suitable job. An unemployed person has the right to benefits and free training in a profession. A university graduate can also receive unemployed status.
Unemployment is the lack of employment in the national economy of the working population who wants to have a job. Those who, due to age and health status, are able to work in the national economy (men aged 14-59 years and women aged 14-54) are considered able-bodied.
Unemployment is the result of a mismatch between the demand for labor and its supply. Losing a job and not finding an opportunity to use your labor is a disaster not only for the employee, but also for society as a whole.
Unemployment has become an indispensable companion of a market economy. Its level is not constant and changes for a number of reasons, but never drops to zero.
The causes of unemployment are:
. structural changes in the economy associated with the introduction of new technologies and equipment, which leads to a reduction in excess labor;
. an economic downturn or depression that forces employers to reduce labor requirements;
. government and trade union policies in the field of wages: increasing the minimum wage increases production and distribution costs and thereby reduces the demand for labor;
. seasonal changes in the level of production in certain sectors of the economy;
. changes in the demographic structure of the population, i.e. As the working age population grows, the likelihood of unemployment increases.
According to the form of manifestation, unemployment can be:
. frictional, i.e. associated with voluntarily leaving one job and searching for another. There is always a certain part of people in such a situation, so this type of unemployment exists constantly;
. structural, associated with changes in technology, the emergence of new and dying out of old professions and entire industries, restructuring of the regional economy, which causes the dismissal of part of the workforce. It will take time before the “structural” unemployed are retrained and find new jobs. Structural unemployment is also inevitable and always exists in society;
. cyclical, generated by the cyclical development of a market economy, i.e., alternating periods of rise and fall in production. This is the most “unpleasant” type of unemployment - often massive and painful;
. seasonal, which is caused by fluctuations in demand for labor at different periods of time in some industries (agriculture, construction);
. hidden, when the labor force is not fully used, people formally work, but in fact occupy extra jobs, are on unpaid leave, and quit.
Unemployment in Russia has a certain uniqueness. When production falls by 50%, many people who are not officially employed are not unemployed and do not seek help from the employment service. This is partly explained by the fact that for a certain category of the population, the sale of resources has turned into a source of income.
Many people who do not have official work and an official source of income are employed in shadow businesses. The Law on Employment in the Russian Federation gives citizens the right to travel abroad to work.
Frictional and structural unemployment are inevitable and constitute the natural level of unemployment, which is caused by the “transfusion” of labor in search of the most suitable places and the need to master new specialties. Natural unemployment indicates the presence of progressive processes in society.
The only worrying factor is cyclical unemployment. Full employment does not mean the absolute absence of unemployment and implies the absence only of cyclical unemployment. But with full employment there is frictional and structural unemployment.
Full employment exists in the presence of a natural rate of unemployment (the percentage of unemployed in the total working-age population).
The unemployment rate, %, is determined by the formula:

U b = (B/RS). 100,

where B is the number of unemployed, people; PC - total number of able-bodied people, people.
For example (the figures are conditional), if in country X out of 96 million people of working age, 9.6 million do not have and are looking for work, then the unemployment rate in it reaches 10%.
Each country has its own natural level of unemployment.
The negative consequences of unemployment are:
. reduction in the volume of GNP (compared to what could be produced);
. drop in consumer demand;
. reduction in savings;
. inhibition of the investment process;
. decrease in supply;
. decline in production;
. loss of qualifications of released workers;
. criminalization of society;
. increasing political instability.
Among the negative consequences of unemployment, the main one is underproduction (loss of part of GNP), which is determined using Okun's law, which expresses the mathematical relationship between the unemployment rate and the lag in GNP growth.
According to Okun's law, an annual increase in real GNP of 2.7% allows maintaining the number of unemployed at a constant level. Every additional 2.5% increase in real GNP reduces the number of unemployed by 1%. Likewise, each additional 2% reduction in GNP growth causes unemployment to rise by 1%. For example, with natural unemployment of 6% and actual unemployment of 9%, the loss of GNP (%) will be (9 - 6). 2.5 = 7.5.
This law consists of two parts.
1. A certain increase in GNP is necessary only to prevent unemployment from increasing. The number of labor forces increases every year, and its use becomes more productive. For these reasons, from 2.5 to 3% of annual growth in real GNP is necessary to create new jobs that can keep unemployment at the same level.
2. An increase in GNP reduces the unemployment rate, while a relative fall in the growth rate increases the share of the unemployed. If the growth rate increases, for example from 3 to 5%, the share of unemployed decreases by approximately 1%.
The second part of Okun's law contains the 2:1 rule, which can be used to determine what economic growth should be to solve the problem of unemployment. Let's assume that the unemployment rate is 8% and the government's goal is to reduce the unemployment rate to 6%. This means that it is necessary to achieve higher economic growth through fiscal stimulus and monetary policy.
The social consequences of unemployment are no less severe. American experts are forced to admit that “unemployment is more than an economic disaster, it is also a social catastrophe. Depression leads to inactivity, and inactivity leads to loss of skills, self-esteem, decline in moral values, and social and political unrest.”
In Russia, there is a law “On Employment in the Russian Federation” dated April 19, 1991 No. 154. It defined the essence of state employment policy, which consists of promoting “the rights of citizens to full, productive, freely chosen employment.” The state regulates employment and the labor market using economic and legislative methods:
. economic - when the state promotes the preservation, development, and creation of jobs through financial, investment and tax policies;
. legislative - through the development and adoption of various laws on labor and employment, on guarantees of respect for the rights of citizens and the responsibility of persons who violate labor laws. The main part of the work on regulating the labor market is carried out by specialists from state labor and employment agencies.
There are the following organizational methods of state regulation of the labor market:
. social support for the period of employment (unemployment benefits; financial assistance to families of the unemployed; public paid work; scholarships for the period of study);
. vocational training, retraining, retraining by labor and employment authorities (system of higher, secondary and primary vocational education; system of advanced training and retraining of personnel in production);
. redistribution of workers and employment of the population (interregional redistribution of labor; work at various enterprises).