Neolithic revolution. What is the Neolithic revolution, what are its causes

Introduction 3

1. Characteristics of the concept of “Neolithic revolution”. 5

2. Agriculture and cattle breeding. 6

3. Everyday life. Organization of power 9

4. Prestigious economy 11

5. Craft 13

Conclusion 17

References 19

Introduction

By the end of the Paleolithic, people had populated the entire Earth, except for areas covered with continental ice and remote islands in the ocean. Upper Paleolithic settlements were found on the Tibetan Plateau, Chukotka and Alaska, the island of Tasmania and near the Arctic Circle on the Pechora River.

The population of that time, according to various estimates, ranges from 3 to 10 million people: residents of a large modern city, scattered throughout the ecumene.

10,200 years ago the ice age ended and the Holocene– geological modernity. Landscapes were changing: the dry polar steppe filled with water and became tundra, forest was advancing on it, and the belt of forests from the south was crowded out by the steppe. The sea flooded the coasts, burying river mouths, coastal plains, and penetrating deep into the valleys. Large animals disappeared, others became fewer. Humanity is faced - not for the first time - with a serious environmental crisis, which required new solutions from people in the struggle for survival. If earlier cold snaps forced people to retreat to the south, move, and improve hunting tools, then at the turn of the Holocene, such opportunities were exhausted for many communities. Residents of mountain valleys and oases surrounded by desert found themselves in a particularly difficult situation. Even with minimal population growth, the balance between man and nature was disrupted. Hunting became unproductive, and the role of gathering grew.

All these and other related circumstances, including such an important factor as the accumulation of experience and knowledge, led to a radical revolution in the system of material production - the Neolithic revolution, i.e. the transition of human communities from primitive hunter-gatherer economies to agriculture based on cropping and/or animal husbandry.

1. Characteristics of the concept of “Neolithic revolution”.

In 1939, the English archaeologist Gordon Child, based on the study of Western Asian antiquities, introduced the concept of “Neolithic revolution”: the process of transition to agriculture and cattle breeding, which radically transformed life.

The Neolithic Revolution, according to G. Child, led to sedentarization, a significant increase in labor productivity with the receipt of a regular surplus surplus product and, as a result, an increase in population size and density, social division of labor, the development of social differentiation of society, new ideas and views. The emergence of civilization directly followed from it: cities, states, writing.

The Neolithic is characterized primarily by significant improvements in stone processing techniques. Stone processing operations have become more complicated - drilling, grinding, sawing and other operations have appeared. With their use, completely new specialized and highly productive types of stone tools, as well as tools made of wood and bone, were created. Technology for the production of textiles and pottery was invented. Primitive means of transport (sleighs, skis, boats) appeared and were improved. Labor productivity has increased significantly.

The meaning of this revolution in the system of material production was the transition from an appropriating economy to a producing one, i.e. from hunting and gathering to farming and herding. People learned to sow grain, which provided uninterrupted food throughout the year, to raise livestock, which regularly supplied people with meat (in addition, milk, cheese, hides, leather, wool, etc.). The environmental (and economic) crisis has been overcome. The life of the tribal community has become more prosperous and stable; people became less dependent on the natural environment, and social welfare increased significantly. The Neolithic Revolution was the first link in a chain of successive transformations of the system of social life, as a result of which civilization ultimately arose, and with it science.

According to archaeological data, the domestication of animals and plants occurred at different times independently in 7 - 8 regions.

The most ancient and powerful in its influence center of origin of agriculture and cattle breeding arose in Western Asia; it gave humanity wheat, the main food crop; all major domestic animals: cows, sheep, goats, pigs and, as a result, the most ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Mediterranean. The center was formed from centers stretching from Palestine, through the mountains of Lebanon to the north of Iraq - the “Fertile Crescent” and a number of centers in Anatolia (modern Turkey). Perhaps in the north the center included Transcaucasia.

The development of the producing economy resulted in a significant increase in the total population: at the turn of the 5th-4th millennium BC. e. About 80 million people already lived on Earth, and the population density for populated areas ranged from 10 to 100 people. per 1 km2.

The reasons for such a sharp increase in the Neolithic population were an improvement in the quality of life and a decrease in mortality, an increase in the birth rate and a reduction in the intervals between births. For the first time in the history of mankind, there was a desire to have many children. In addition, from that time on, the previously very significant gap in life expectancy between men and women began to decrease. The population of the Earth has increased, despite the fairly frequent epidemics that have become common since the Neolithic period; epidemics were caused by the transition to sedentism and overcrowding of people.

2. Agriculture and cattle breeding.

According to current evidence, the first grain that people domesticated was probably barley. In the X-VIII millennium BC. it had already been sown in Asia Minor, on the western slopes of the Iranian Plateau and Palestine. In the Asia Minor cultural complex of Çatalhöyük (second half of the 7th - first half of the 6th millennium BC), 14 plant species were cultivated, among which wheat, barley and peas played the main role. But in mountainous conditions, farming is not very productive. Only as a result of migration movements into the river valleys of the subtropical zone did agriculture gain scope for its victorious development. Over 4,000 years, agriculture spread throughout the western part of the Old World.

The main tool of ancient farmers was first a digging stick for loosening the soil. Later (but not everywhere) the hoe was added to it (stick-hoe farming). Cattle breeding developed 2000 years later, but nevertheless agriculture was probably never the only form of economy; in the early stages of its development it was combined with hunting. A dog, domesticated in the Upper Paleolithic, served as a human assistant in hunting.

The transition of primitive communities to agriculture and cattle breeding is a fairly long process, associated with a significant change in lifestyle - the transition to sedentism. It is natural that at first new forms of economy (agriculture and cattle breeding) were combined with old ones (hunting and gathering), occupying a subordinate place as a secondary way of life. The duration of such coexistence of two structures (appropriating and producing) was determined by the natural-geographical and social situation in which the clan community lived and worked. The transition to a productive economy occurred faster where there were unfavorable conditions for hunting and gathering, where crisis situations and high population density did not allow one to limit oneself to hunting and gathering and forced people to radically change the circumstances of their life.

The forms of primary farming systems varied in different regions due to different natural and socio-cultural conditions. The most productive was estuary agriculture, the development of which led (in the 7th millennium BC) to irrigation agriculture. In Mesopotamia, under conditions of artificial irrigation, the barley yield was stable and quite high - up to 1200-1400 kg/ha. (In Ancient Sumer, a harvest from 1 hectare could feed three families for a year, and processing such an area took only 40-50 working days.) Rainfed farming also developed (when sowing was done on the eve of the rains). In some regions, to increase fertility, grass and shrubs were first set on fire - this was the beginning of fallow farming, which later led to slash-and-burn farming in forested areas.

The further development of agriculture was associated with its intensification - the development of new farming techniques (alternating sowing of various crops, the use of fertilizers, improving soil loosening, the emergence of vegetable gardening, horticulture, etc.), the transition from stick-hoe farming to arable farming (V-IV thousand . BC.). The increasing complexity of agricultural technology and all agricultural production led to a wider participation of the male part of the community in it. Child labor began to be used more intensively.

In parallel and in close connection with agriculture, cattle breeding developed. In the early stages, it was apparently characterized by the maintenance of small populations of mainly small animals (goats, sheep, pigs, etc.), and later larger ones (buffaloes, llamas, cattle). Caring for livestock was kept to a minimum; livestock were mainly left to graze freely. Later, stabling of livestock appeared; and already relatively late - nomadism (nomadism).

In the era of domestication of animals and plants, their removal from natural habitats, ancient breeders intensively accumulated and widely and fruitfully used a variety of knowledge about the anatomy, physiology, and ecology of animals and plants. At first unconsciously, and then consciously, they used artificial selection, mastered its patterns and requirements (leaving the best animals for the tribe, selecting the best plants for sowing, etc.).

The domestication of animals contributed to the development of transportation. If even in the Mesolithic, boats became a universal mode of transport, waterways were mastered, skis and sleds were widely used for transportation, then in the Neolithic, domestic animals began to be used to move sleds and drags (the horse was domesticated in the 4th millennium BC, and camel - in the 5th millennium BC). In the 3rd millennium BC. With the advent of wheeled carts, an essentially revolutionary revolution in means of transport took place. The speed of movement of large groups of people increased almost 10 times (from 3.7 to 35-38 km/h), thanks to which long-distance migrations of significant masses of people and even entire ethnic groups became possible, and the preconditions appeared for the emergence of developed forms of nomadism. This revolutionary revolution was reflected in the mythology of the nomads - mythological images of a chariot drawn by horses appeared (the Sun as a symbol of the wheel, the chariot - the Sun God, etc.).

3. Everyday life. Organization of power

In the Neolithic, the type of settlements itself gradually changed - it was increasingly a permanent village built according to a specific plan in which one community lived. Residents of a community are no longer only relatives, but also neighbors, and the community itself turns from a tribal community into a neighboring, or territorial one. The average size of the community is estimated at several hundred and even thousands of people.

In the Neolithic, the way of life of farmers and their way of life changed significantly: the settled way of life became stronger, house-building improved - houses became more durable, durable, and well-equipped. Already in the 7th millennium BC. (Jericho A cultural complex) the interior of the house, built of mud brick, consists of several parts separated by partitions. Some of them are intended for housing, others play the role of household warehouses and bins. The floor of the living quarters is plastered, often painted or even covered with paintings, and often covered with mats woven with bone tools. The walls are painted in different colors. Between the houses there were small courtyards where the hearth was located and food was prepared. Figures of people and animals were sculpted from clay, which had a cult character and decorated homes.

There have been significant changes in the position of the sexes. The foundation for this was the new order of division of labor between men and women, determined by the specifics of the development of the most important sectors of the manufacturing economy.

At the beginning of the Neolithic, the increasing complexity of production activities led to increased specialization of labor based on gender and age. Making tools was a man's job, caring for children, cooking, delivering water and fuel was a woman's job. Men also took part in agriculture and cattle breeding - they did the heavier work, and women did the most painstaking work, requiring patience and accuracy.

Over time, the situation changed: women's participation in agriculture and cattle breeding was increasingly limited. At the end of the Neolithic, their sphere of activity became mainly the household, and in it - serving men and children. All the main means of production are transferred to the disposal and then to the ownership of men, which entails an economically dependent, disadvantaged position for women.

An important element of social organization were either men's unions or men's houses, which grew out of the natural separation of men and women. In men's houses, all adult men of the community discussed current affairs, including economic affairs, made decisions, and elected leaders. Women were not allowed to attend such meetings.

During this period, a special type of leaders is formed - in modern international historical and economic literature they are usually called big men. These were men who nominated themselves, standing out from the crowd with their personal talents, knowledge, wealth and generosity. It was from this layer that the male part of the community chose the leader.

The leader was required to know and be able to do more than ordinary members of the community knew and could do. It was easier to pass on this knowledge, skills, and experience to a son, nephew, or brother than to strangers. A relative of a chief had a better chance of being “trained” to become a chief than others. The result of these processes was the formation of privileged layers of society of the first nobility, emerging from the tribal elite. These were leaders, priestesses, and also the most successful in economic activities.

The end of the Neolithic, apparently, dates back to the emergence on a mass scale of such a phenomenon as property inequality, which was superimposed on the natural inequality that had existed in the human community since ancient times, based on the various mental, intellectual, and physical abilities of people. The foundations of private property are being laid and deepened as a comprehensive, permanent phenomenon, illuminated by historical tradition.

Private property included individual housing, household utensils, clothing, jewelry, household equipment, tools, livestock, boats, and other movable property.

Another type of property was collective (tribal or communal) ownership of land. Within a collective, individual people or families owned plots of land - they could be cultivated, but could not be transferred to another person for use.

4. Prestigious economy

On the borders of tribes with different economic orientations, and subsequently within the tribe, exchange developed more and more intensively. This economic phenomenon was the most important consequence of the specialization of economic activities and progress in the evolution of productive forces. Nomadic - shepherd and sedentary - agricultural tribes exchanged their goods - live cattle, meat, skins, grain, fruits. Over time, exchange became more and more intense and became the basis for the development of commodity circulation.

The most important feature of economic development during this period was the emergence of the so-called prestigious economy - the Neolithic version of gift exchange. As before, gift exchange existed both within and between different communities. Gifts included a wide variety of items - from livestock to useless bird feathers. Regardless of what exactly a person gave, he acquired social prestige. The economic result of gift exchange was contradictory: on the one hand, it contributed to the development of production, since certain plants were specially grown for gifts and livestock were bred; on the other hand, the gift exchange procedure was accompanied by abundant feasts, when too much was eaten and drunk in vain. Unproductive spending hampered the development of society. It is characteristic that the desire to give more than to receive in return gradually increased: the giver acquired a certain power over the taker of material values. Thus, the prestige economy contributed to social stratification and played a major role in deepening inequality in society and shaping institutions of power.

The development of a prestigious economy with its counting of gifts stimulated the accumulation of mathematical knowledge. The first, still primitive, counting systems appeared - these were bundles of straw, bundles of shells, ropes with knots tied on them. In primitive Europe, stones were usually used for counting: the words “calculator” and “calculation” go back to the ancient Latin word calculus - stone.

The growth of agriculture and increasingly intensive land work contributed to the development of geometric knowledge. The first geographical maps were compiled. At the very end of the Neolithic, the wheel was invented and the development of wheeled transport began. At the same time, another event of exceptional importance occurred - the first written language in human history appeared. This became the boundary separating primitive history from the era of civilizations.

5. Craft

The oldest craft was pottery. It was based on the invention of a pottery forge - a furnace for firing clay products, the temperature of which reached - 1200 ° C, and a potter's wheel - a special device for giving shape to clay products. The main thing in pottery was the production of earthenware, which made it possible to significantly improve the methods of food production and the conditions for its storage. Improving food technologies is becoming an important factor in economic development.

Another ancient craft was weaving - making fabric on a handloom. To do this, people grew flax, nettles, and other crops, split the fibers, twisted them, spun them, and made ropes and threads. Thin and coarse fabrics were made from threads for the production of clothing and household needs, and bags and bags were sewn.

Stone processing technology advanced significantly, reaching perfection during the Neolithic period. Along with the old ones, new, harder rocks of minerals began to be processed.

Almost jewelery grinding and polishing techniques were used to process them. At the end of the Neolithic, some tribes, having completely mastered the stone technique and learned all the possibilities of stone, began to use new materials for the manufacture of tools - metals, primarily copper and bronze. And although the first experiments in the development of metal were very few, difficult and not always successful, they subsequently largely predetermined progress in the development of productive forces.

The use of metals in material production, in everyday life, in means of transport, and in military equipment was the greatest, essentially revolutionary, revolution in human technical equipment. In the history of the development of metallurgy, there is a lot that is still not entirely clear, there are many controversial issues. Nevertheless, in general terms this process can be represented as follows.

Even in the Paleolithic (about 20 thousand years ago) in Kostenki, during the production of dark cherry paints, iron was obtained as a by-product by firing iron nodules from local sands in a fire. But the public need for metals had not yet developed. The first metal that man mastered was copper. Historically, the first form of copper development was the processing of native copper, first by cold forging, and then by hot forging and annealing. The next stage is the extraction of copper from ores and casting. And only subsequently - the production of copper alloys, especially bronze.

The most ancient copper processing region recorded by archaeologists is Western Asia. Forging of native copper mined from the Ergani deposits (South-Eastern Anatolia) is recorded at the level of the 7th millennium BC. Starting from the middle of the 5th millennium BC. in the Middle East, in Iran, large cast copper products appear - axes, daggers, sickles, etc. Apparently, in the 5th millennium BC. The smelting of copper ores begins, the development of ore mining and the development of mines takes place. In the second half of the 5th - first half of the 4th millennium BC. Bronze foundry production developed (first arsenic and then tin bronzes). At first, copper and bronze were not used to produce household items (which would seem to be expected), but weapons and luxury and prestige items - beads, needles, piercings, etc. There was simply not enough metal for mass production of agricultural implements; In addition, at the stage of development of metallurgy, the prestigious use of metals was monopolized by the nobility.

The first iron objects recorded by archaeologists, made by forging from meteorite iron, date back to the first half of the 5th millennium BC. (Iran) and IV millennium BC. (Egypt). The development of iron ore dates back to the second half of the 4th - first half of the 3rd millennium BC. (Anatolia).

It is believed that ore iron could be a secondary product of copper metallurgical production, in which iron ore was used as a flux.

In the early days of the development of ferrous metallurgy, iron was highly valued, was considered a rare metal and was used only for the manufacture of luxury goods. Only after the discovery of the technology for carburizing iron, which made it much harder, were deposits of iron ore developed (late 2nd millennium BC, Eastern Mediterranean), and a transition to mass production of iron occurred. This, in turn, made it possible to radically transform technology and agricultural production tools.

The use of metal tools increased labor productivity several times. Iron axes made it possible to speed up man's advance into forests and facilitated the development of new spaces and lands. Based on the iron ploughshare, a real plow was created and agricultural production was intensified. In addition, handicraft production begins to play an extremely important role, as well as the development of mining, the origins of which go back to the Neolithic era, when silicon mining was established.

Metal production was not necessary for the emergence of early class relations. In many regions of the world (for example, in Polynesia) they developed on the basis of pre-metallurgical stone technology. The use of metals was a side, secondary aspect of the formation of a manufacturing economy, which did not take place everywhere. But the creation of ferrous metallurgy, mass production and widespread use of iron became an important factor in accelerating the processes of class formation.

Conclusion

The Neolithic Revolution is the transition of human societies from a primitive hunter-gatherer economy to an agriculture based on crops and/or animal husbandry.

The concept of "Neolithic revolution" was first proposed by Gordon Childe in the mid-twentieth century. In addition to the emergence of a productive economy, it includes a number of consequences that are important for the entire way of life of Neolithic man. The small mobile bands of hunters and gatherers who dominated the previous Mesolithic era settled in cities and towns near their fields, radically altering the environment through cultivation (including irrigation) and storage of harvested crops in specially constructed buildings and structures. An increase in labor productivity led to an increase in population, the creation of relatively large armed detachments guarding the territory, division of labor, revitalization of trade, the emergence of property rights, centralized administration, political structures, ideology and new systems of knowledge that made it possible to transfer it from generation to generation not only orally, but also in writing. The appearance of writing is an attribute of the end of the historical period, which usually coincides with the end of the Neolithic and the Stone Age in general.

Shifts in human economic activity were extremely significant: for the first time, thanks to the productive economy, it became possible to obtain a surplus product regularly, and not episodicly, as before. The result of the Neolithic revolution was a change in the nature of work and the very structure of human society, profound changes in the lifestyle and psyche of people.

Thus, the emergence of a productive economy was the greatest achievement of the primitive economy and the foundation for the entire subsequent economic history of mankind.

The Neolithic Revolution also had negative consequences. The main one is the ecological crisis, caused by the fact that a sharp increase in the number of domestic animals and agricultural land occurred due to the burning of forests, reduction of their areas, and this in turn led to a decrease in the level of rivers, groundwater, and desertification of vast territories. (So, in the Mesolithic, the Sahara was the richest savanna. The uncontrolled development of cattle breeding turned it into a desert: rivers dried up, lakes disappeared, animals became extinct.) Humanity emerged from this crisis thanks to the movement to the north and the development of new territories freed up after the melting of glaciers, as well as the development irrigated agriculture in river valleys.

Bibliography

Brodyansky D.L. History of the primitive communal system. –M.: Academy, 2005.

Gladky V.D. Ancient world. Encyclopedic Dictionary. –M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2005.

Grinin L.E. Productive forces and the historical process. –M.: KomKniga, 2006.

Zakharova E.N. Introduction to social studies. Society – Culture – Civilization. –M.: Academy, 2008.

History of world culture (world of civilizations). /Ed. G.V. Dracha. –Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2007.

History of the world economy. /Ed. G.B. Polyak, A.N. Markova. –M.: Unity, 2005.

Korotaev, A.V., Malkov A.S., Khalturina D.A. Laws of history. Mathematical modeling of the development of the World System. Demography, economics, culture. –M.: URSS, 2007

Moiseeva L.A. History of civilizations. –Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2006.

Naydysh V.M. Concepts of modern natural science. –M.: Infra-M, 2006.

Neolithic revolution, which consisted of a transition from appropriating... changes in the method of production, called Neolithic revolution, which consisted in the transition from appropriating...

LECTURE No. 3§ 2. Neolithic revolution and its consequences.

What is the Neolithic Revolution . For millions of years, people lived by hunting, fishing and gathering. Man “appropriated” the gifts of nature, which is why this type of economy is called appropriating . People were entirely dependent on nature, external conditions, climate changes, the abundance or scarcity of prey, and random luck. About 11-10 thousand years ago, the relationship between man and nature became radically different. Agriculture and livestock breeding began. People began to independently produce the products necessary for life. Dependence on the environment has greatly decreased. This type of farming is called producing .

The productive economy still remains the basis of human existence.

The transition to a productive economy among a number of tribes and peoples began during the Mesolithic period and ended in the Neolithic.

The emergence of a productive economy radically changed the life of mankind, relationships within human communities, and the order of management in them.

Historians called these changes neolithic revolution .

Causes of the Neolithic Revolution. About 12 thousand years ago, the last major glaciation of the Earth ended. In a relatively short period of time, the tundra and part of the territory where eternal ice lay were covered with forests. It seemed that such changes would make life easier for people, but during the melting of the ice, mammoths and many other large animals, which primitive people were used to and knew how to hunt and which gave them food, skins, and bones for making various objects, became extinct. I had to master hunting small game and birds, and pay more attention to fishing. Now tribal communities in search of prey were often forced to move to new territories.

During this period, bows and arrows, various traps, and traps were invented. Another invention was the boomerang, which had the property of returning back when thrown unsuccessfully (not hitting the prey). People built boats and rafts on which they sailed not only along rivers and lakes, but also went out to sea.

The melting of the glacier had dire consequences for the communities of Western Asia (the territory of modern Turkey, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Iraq, Iran and some other countries). During the Paleolithic period, wild sheep, wild boars, goats, bulls were hunted here, and cereals were collected - wheat, barley, millet. In the wild, these plants grow only in the mountainous regions of Western Asia.

To cut the ears of cereal crops, people invented a special tool - sickle. A groove was hollowed out along the inner surface of a curved wooden stick or bone, and sharply ground pebbles 1-2 cm in size were inserted into it close to each other ( microliths) and fixed everything with resin or concrete. If one of the microliths broke or fell out, it could easily be replaced with another, since they were made the same, in the form of trapezoids or triangles. Later, microliths began to be used to make composite knives, swords, axes, and spears.

After the end of glaciation, a terrible drought began in Western Asia, which led to the death of many animals and plants. The environmental crisis has forced people to look for new sources of livelihood. A solution was found in artificial breeding of plants and taming (domestication) of animals.

The emergence of a productive economy . Grain gatherers noticed: if a grain is buried in loose soil and watered with water, then an ear with many grains grows from it. This is how it was born agriculture . Only the best grains were selected for sowing each year. Over time, the appearance and many beneficial properties of wheat, millet, barley and other grains have changed.

Due to the drought, wild sheep, goats, cows, and pigs began to enter human settlements in search of water. Community members often caught them alive, kept them in pens and ate them as needed. Some animals were already born in captivity. Over time, such animals began to be fed, grazed, and the calmest and largest were selected for breeding. Gradually, domestic animals began to differ from wild animals in habits, character, and even anatomical structure. Happened animal domestication. Appeared animal husbandry (cattle breeding).

They were first domesticated in the 10th - 9th millennia BC. sheep and goats, in the 7th millennium BC. tamed a pig and a cow. In ancient times, the cat was also domesticated to save grain supplies from rodents. (The dog was domesticated by Paleolithic hunters).

The first plants to be grown were wheat, barley, millet, and lentils. Later they learned to grow fruit-bearing trees - plums, pears, peaches, apricots, apples, grapes, etc.

The oldest site with traces of agriculture, discovered in northern Iraq, dates back to the 10th - 9th millennia BC.

When the climate became more humid, agriculture spread throughout almost all of Western Asia and some neighboring territories (Egypt, southern Europe, Central Asia, etc.). New species of cultivated plants and animals were bred on new lands. Thus, in Central Asia the camel was domesticated.

In a number of places, agriculture arose independently, without connection with Western Asia. America, of course, belongs to such places, where they began to grow corn and tomatoes. Rice was “domesticated” in India and China. Cattle may have been independently domesticated in Europe. However, the “ancestors” of most domestic animals (sheep, goats, cows) and plants (wheat, barley, millet) are considered to be wild animals and plants that existed only in Western Asia.

Cereal crops and domestic animals obtained by the ancient inhabitants of Western Asia still remain the main sources of food for humanity.

Consequences of the Neolithic Revolution . Following the advent of agriculture, many more discoveries were made. People learned to produce wool and linen fabrics. The most important invention was ceramics(the first products made of baked clay date back to the 8th millennium BC). Appeared Potter's wheel. Bricks used in construction were also made from clay.

To irrigate the fields, they began to build canals and pools, gradually irrigation (irrigation) structures became more and more difficult. The fields began to be cultivated not only with a hoe, but also plow And plow m. Over time, bulls began to be used for plowing.

At the settlement of farmers and pastoralists at the turn of the 8th - 7th millennia BC. The most ancient products made of native copper were found in Chayonyu-Tepesi in Asia Minor. From the V - IV millennia BC. a period is coming in the Middle East Chalcolithic - Copper-Stone Age (transitional from the Stone to the Bronze Age). In Europe, the beginning of the Chalcolithic dates back to the 3rd millennium BC. Bronze Age began in the Middle East at the end of the 4th - 3rd millennium BC, and in Europe in the 2nd millennium BC. Iron products ( iron age ) began to be manufactured from the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. in Western Asia and in the 1st millennium BC. in Europe. After the development of mass production of iron ore products, stone tools finally disappeared.

Neolithic revolution on the territory of modern Russia . In the steppes of the Southern Urals and Volga region, archaeologists found bones of domestic animals (cows, goats, sheep), which began to be bred 8 - 7 thousand years ago. These are the oldest traces of a productive economy on the territory of Russia. Domestic animals were brought here by settlers from the southern lands.

People who once lived in the Southern Urals also contributed to the Neolithic revolution. It is here that the world's oldest bones of domesticated horses were found.

The appearance of domesticated horses dramatically accelerated the course of history. Horses facilitated communication between different peoples, which contributed to their mutual development. It is no coincidence that in regions where it was not possible to tame a horse, development proceeded slowly (America, Australia).

Social division of labor. The origins of crafts and trade . The economy in the first communities of farmers and cattle breeders was complex. Growing cereals, fruits and raising livestock complemented each other. However, differences in natural conditions very soon led to the emergence specializations .

On fertile lands, the main occupation becomes agriculture and associated livestock raising. Farmers led a sedentary lifestyle. The tribes that found themselves in the steppe regions completely switched to cattle breeding, which, after the domestication of the horse and the development of the wheel, acquired nomadic character .

The so-called happenedfirst major social division of labor - separation of agriculture and cattle breeding into separate economic complexes.

In the settlements of farmers, people began to appear who specialized in the production of various products from stone, metals or clay, in the manufacture of textiles, etc. ( artisans). Over time, many began to live exclusively from crafts.

Happened second major social division of labor - separation of crafts from agriculture and cattle breeding.

The social division of labor contributed to the development exchange . Craftsmen supplied farmers and cattle breeders with their products, receiving food from them. Farmers and herders also exchanged their products. This is how it was born trade .

The beginning of the formation of nations. With the development of the manufacturing economy, differences in the pace of development of different regions of the world have increased. Where there were favorable conditions for farming and the development of crafts, development proceeded faster.

Natural and climatic conditions influenced the formation of peoples who spoke different languages.

Scientists suggest that once upon a time the ancestors of speakers of related languages represented single communities and lived in one place. Then individual groups separated, mixed with other tribes, and differences in languages appeared and intensified.

In the scientific world, the debate still continues about which peoples lived on the territory of Western Asia during the formation of the productive economy. Undoubtedly, both there and in North Africa in ancient times there lived tribes that gave rise to Semitic-Hamitic languages. These languages were spoken by many ancient peoples: Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians.

There is a point of view that in some areas of Western Asia there lived tribes that laid the foundation for peoples speaking Indo-European languages. Nowadays, Indo-European languages are used by a significant part of the world's population. In particular, Russian belongs to the East Slavic group of Indo-European languages.

The question of the time and place of the appearance of the Indo-Europeans has also been the subject of debate for more than two hundred years, since the kinship of the languages distributed over vast areas from India to Western Europe was established (hence their name). Most scientists believe that the Indo-European community began to take shape in the 4th - 3rd millennia BC, but there are opinions about an earlier period (VI - 5th millennium BC).

Previously, it was believed that the ancestral homeland of the Indo-European peoples was Southern Scandinavia and Northern Germany. Currently, this point of view has no supporters among scientists. The most widespread theory is the Balkan-Danubian ancestral homeland of the Indo-Europeans. The version about the southern Russian ancestral home (Eastern Ukraine, Northern Caucasus, Volga region, Southern Cis-Urals) is also popular. Finally, an opinion is expressed about the Eastern Anatolian ancestral home (north of Western Asia).

The main occupation of the Indo-European tribes for a long time was cattle breeding. However, mastering the secret of making bronze weapons made the Indo-Europeans very warlike. Separate groups moved in different directions, trying to capture the best lands. Mixing with other tribes and passing on their languages to them, the Indo-Europeans settled almost all of Europe, Central Asia, Iran, India and other lands.

Evolution of social relations. Neighborhood Community . The Mesolithic and Neolithic periods were a time of change in communities.

As farmers improved their tools and used draft animals, the individual family became an increasingly independent production unit. The need for joint work disappeared. This process was enhanced by the introduction of bronze and especially iron tools. The clan community gave way neighboring community .

Housing, tools, draft animals in the neighboring community became property of individual families. However, arable and other land continued to remain in communal ownership. As a rule, members of one family worked on the arable land, but clearing the fields and irrigating them were carried out jointly by all members of the neighboring community.

Among pastoralists, clan relationships lasted longer than among farmers. The herds remained the common property of the clan for a long time.

Over time, equality within the community became a thing of the past. Some families became wealthier than others and accumulated wealth.

At the origins of statehood. The highest governing body in communities and tribes remained the assembly, in which all adult members took part. Elected by the assembly for the period of hostilities leader depended on the support of his fellow tribesmen. The elders formed the council of the community, the tribe. All relations within society were regulated by customs and traditions ( customary law ). The organization of power in primitive communities and tribes can be called self-government.

As material inequality developed, inequality in governance also increased. Wealthier members of the community began to exert increasing influence on management. In the national assembly, the word of such people becomes decisive. The power of the leader was now maintained during periods of peace and gradually began to be inherited. In conditions of growing inequality, many customs and traditions ceased to effectively regulate life. The leaders had to resolve disputes between their fellow tribesmen and punish them for offenses that could not have happened before. For example, after individual families acquired property, theft arose, which was unknown before, since everything was common.

The development of inequality was facilitated by an increase in the number of clashes between tribes. During the Paleolithic period, tribal wars were quite rare, but since the beginning of the Neolithic revolution they were fought almost constantly. Individual communities and tribes, in a productive economy, could accumulate significant food reserves, which other tribes sought to appropriate.

For successful defense and attacks, the tribes united in tribal unions led by a military leader. The best warriors rallied around the leaders.

In many ancient societies, leaders also acquired and priestly functions: only they could communicate with the gods and ask them for help for their fellow tribesmen. The leader-priest led the rituals.

Over time, members of the community (tribe) began to supply the leader and his associates with everything they needed. Initially these were voluntary gifts, signs of respect. Then the donations moved into the category obligatory taxes, similar to taxes. The material basis for this phenomenon can be considered success in economic development. It is calculated, for example, that the primitive farmer of Western Asia provided himself with food for a whole year in two months of work; he gave what he produced the rest of the time to the leaders and priests.

After a successful raid on their neighbors, the leader and especially distinguished warriors received the best part of the booty. There were also prisoners among the booty. Previously, they were either released, sacrificed to the gods, or eaten. Now the prisoners began to be forced to work for the victors (again because the person could already produce more than he himself needed). This is how they appeared slaves.

The growth of wealth of leaders and nobles as a result of wars further increased their power over their fellow tribesmen.

Tribes united in alliances were usually not equal to each other. One tribe dominated the alliance, sometimes forcing others to join it. It became common for one tribe to conquer others. In this case, the conquerors had to develop new control mechanisms. The leaders of the conquering tribes became rulers, and their fellow tribesmen - assistants in managing the conquered.

The structure created was in many ways reminiscentstate , one of the main features of which is the presence of bodies for managing society, separated from society itself.

At the same time, the traditions of self-government persisted for a very long time. Even the most powerful leader convened a people's assembly, where important decisions were discussed and approved. The assembly elected a new leader after the death of the old one, even if he was his son.

The first states arose where leaders and their assistants also became leaders of economic life.

This was the case in those places where farming required the construction and maintenance of complex irrigation structures.

The birth of cities. Some villages of farmers turned into large settlements. Stone walls were built around them. Such settlements resembled cities. Cities became the seat of tribal leaders, from where they ruled the area under their control. In the center of such a city there was usually one or more temples, which were considered the dwellings of the gods. The gods of the sun, wind and rain, who were believed to control natural phenomena on which the lives of farmers and cattle breeders largely depended, were held in special esteem.

One of the oldest settlements (VIII millennium BC) was discovered in the city of Jericho in Palestine. Around ancient Jericho, in which about 3 thousand people lived, walls of stone up to 3 m thick were built. An even larger urban settlement of Chatal-Huyuk (Chatal-Huyuk) existed in the 7th - 6th millennia BC. in Asia Minor. Houses made of sun-dried clay bricks were built close to each other, there were no streets, and the doors were on the roof.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

1. What is a producing economy? How is it different and what are its advantages over the appropriating economy? Make a comparison table.

2. What is the Neolithic Revolution? Where and why did it start?

3. What new appeared in people’s lives during the Neolithic Revolution?

4. How did the Neolithic revolution spread on Earth? What was the contribution to the Neolithic revolution of the ancient inhabitants of the territory of modern Russia?

5. What are the first and second social divisions of labor? What were their consequences?

6. Name the main points of view on the problem of the origin of the Indo-European peoples.

7. Compare the neighboring community with the ancestral one. What changes in people's lives are associated with the transition from a tribal community to a neighborhood one?

8. What are the reasons for the transition of tribes from a system of self-government to a system of individual power?9. How did the birth of statehood take place? What role did wars play in this process?

1. Neolithic revolution.

2. Formation of nations.

By the end of the Paleolithic, man learned not only to make fire and eat thermally processed food, to make complex stone and bone tools, to sew clothes, to build houses, to hunt and fish, but also to live in a social system with social consciousness and its important forms - art and religion. However, man did not yet know either ceramics, or metal, or the wheel, or agriculture, or cattle breeding.

The most important achievement of the next stage of the Stone Age - the Mesolithic - was the invention of the bow and arrow, which dramatically increased hunting productivity. Now, along with round-up hunting, individual hunting has also emerged, not only for large herd animals, but also for small ones. It became possible to create food reserves.

During the Mesolithic era, man took the first steps in the direction of cattle breeding. The domestication, and possibly the domestication, of animals began. So, in the Mesolithic, dogs, the first domestic animals, already appeared. It is possible that at the end of the Mesolithic in some areas pigs, goats, and sheep were domesticated.

The transition to the Neolithic and its duration in different regions of Eurasia differed significantly from each other. It began first in Central Asia (about 6 - 4 thousand years BC). In the forest zone of Russia, the Neolithic lasted about two thousand more years, until 2 thousand years BC. e. This was reflected in the uneven development of different regions, associated primarily with natural conditions: a warm climate and fertile soil created favorable conditions for economic development.

During the Neolithic era the transition to producing economy. It was then that pastoralism and agriculture began, although hunting and gathering were still the main sources of subsistence in most Neolithic communities.

Neolithic revolution.

The changes that occurred at the end of the Stone Age (Neolithic) (about 8-6 thousand) are usually called Neolithic revolution. Its main content is a radical transition from the primitive economy of hunters and gatherers to productive agriculture based on farming and animal husbandry.

Major changes are taking place in the area technologies production of tools and studying the properties of materials. Man has achieved virtuoso art in the processing of stone and bone. The following processing operations were opened: grinding And drilling. The tools acquired new properties, became complex, composite, and miniature.

4. the emergence of the first social restrictions and laws;

5. the emergence of new knowledge systems transmitted from generation to generation (through writing).

With the progress of changes associated with the Neolithic revolution, agricultural communities began to fill the Earth, as hunters had previously filled it. The importance of men's labor increased markedly - clearing land, cultivating the soil, etc. - all this required physical strength. Men's unions became an important element of social organization. The male part of the community chose leader. At first, such people were influential due to their personal qualities, and then the power of the leaders began to be transferred by inheritance. The result of these processes was the emergence privileged sections of society- leaders, priests.

People lived at this timetribal system.Tribal communities were united and united. All people worked together. Property was also shared. The tools of labor, the large hut of the clan, all the land, and livestock were communal property. No one could arbitrarily dispose of the community's property alone. But soon the so-called first division of labor occurred (farming was separated from cattle breeding). A tangible surplus product began to appear, and tribal communities began to be divided into families.

Each family could work independently and feed itself. Families demanded that everything be divided communal ownership of parts, between families ( private property- from the word “part”). At first, tools, livestock, and household items became private property. Instead of one large hut for a whole clan, each family began to build a separate home for itself. Housing also became the private property of the family. Later, the land also became private property.

Private property does not belong to the entire group, but only to one owner. Usually such a master was the head of a large family. After the death of the head of the family, his eldest son became the owner. Private property awakens people's interest in work. Each family understood that a good and well-fed life depended only on the hard work of family members. If the family worked hard, the entire harvest was theirs. Therefore, people sought to better cultivate arable land and care for livestock more carefully. Sometimes you can hear the statement that private property arises due to human greed.

However, in fact, private property arose only when the economy began to develop and when reserves of surplus product appeared. Clan communities gradually died out. Instead they appeared neighboring communities.

In the neighboring community, people gradually forgot about their once common kinship. This was not considered important. Now, as a rule, they did not work as a single team, although they still worked voluntarily and without coercion. Each family privately owned a hut with a vegetable garden, a plot of arable land, livestock, and tools. But communal property remained. For example, rivers and lakes.

Rice. Diagram of the organization of labor activity in the tribal (left) and neighboring (right) communities (try to formulate the difference).

Everyone could fish. Any community member did this on his own. The boat and net were his private property, so the catch also became private property. The forest was communal property, but animals killed during the hunt, mushrooms, berries and brushwood collected became private property. They used the pasture together, driving cattle out to it every morning. But in the evening, each family drove their cows and sheep into the barn. But the neighboring community still continued to unite people.

Gradually, from the complex of such relations regarding the production and ownership of surplus product, property rights arose inequality. Leaders and other categories of influential members of the community began to demand offerings from ordinary members. Captives captured in wars between tribes became slaves.

Some researchers believe that tribes of hunters who did not adopt an agrarian way of life began to “hunt” rural communities, taking away food and property. This is how a system of producing rural communities and squads of hunters robbing them developed. The hunter leaders gradually moved from robbery to regular exactions (tribute). For self-defense and to protect subjects from attacks by competitors, fortified cities were built. The last stage of pre-state development of society was the so-called military democracy.

began to arise chiefdoms- political entities (prototypes of states), including several villages or communities united under the permanent authority of the supreme leader. Tribes began to unite into tribal unions, which gradually began to transform into nationalities. Most likely, this is how the first states arose in Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt and Ancient India at the end of the 4th - beginning of the 3rd millennium BC.

The real revolution in the history of mankind was the development metal. The transition to it was long, difficult and not simultaneous. The development of metal became possible only on the basis of an already established production economy, in the presence of some, at least minimal, surpluses of food, so that part of the time could be devoted to the manufacture of metal products. That is why ancient blacksmithing and metallurgy originated primarily in the southern regions, where, thanks to good natural conditions, agriculture had previously developed.

The first metal used by man was copper. At first, tools and jewelry were made from it using cold forging, which this relatively soft metal easily lends itself to. Of course, this copper was not chemically pure: in natural deposits, copper, as a rule, contains certain impurities - arsenic, antimony, etc. But these are not yet artificial alloys, the development of which was a matter of the future.

The appearance of copper tools intensified the exchange between tribes, since copper deposits are very unevenly distributed around the globe. Many tribes that used metal lived far from its sources. Constant exchange led to shifts in relationships.

Formation of nations

Linguistic classification formed the basis of the ethnic picture of the world. All languages are divided into large families, related by a common origin and subdivided into groups of related languages. Branches are sometimes distinguished within groups, but some languages are not included in groups. For example, the Indo-European language family.

Indo-European language family

Slavic group:

Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian.

Baltic group:

Latvian, Lithuanian.

German group:

German, English, Flemish, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish.

Roman group:

Italian, Spanish, Moldovan, Portuguese, Romanian, French.

Iranian group:

Afghan, Iranian, Ossetian, Tajik.

Although we do not have reliable data to determine the ethnic groups of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods, we were able to obtain some information through the analysis of geographical names. On the territory of the Volga-Oka interfluve they settled Finno-Ugric and Samoyed peoples. Apparently, in the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age they colonized Eastern Siberia. Already in the Neolithic, Finno-Ugric tribes occupied the Eastern Baltic, and in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. e. spread throughout the entire forest belt of the Volga region and the Volga-Oka interfluve.

Most of Eastern Europe has long been inhabited Indo-Europeans. In the Baltics, along with the Finno-Ugric tribes, tribes have long appeared Balts

Iranian-speaking tribes lived in Southern Siberia until the beginning of our era. The heirs of the tribes of this culture were Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians.

ancestral home Turkic peoples are the steppes of Central Asia. At the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age, they begin to penetrate north, into Siberia and west, to the Urals, Central Asia and the Caucasus.

Questions for self-control:

1. WhatIs the essence of the Neolithic revolution revealed?

2. What important consequences of the Neolithic Revolution can you name?

3. Tell us about the process of formation of peoples in the European-Asian region.

Glossary:

*Appropriating type farm*	farm withpredominant role of hunting, gathering and fishing, which corresponds to the most ancient economic stage - cultural history of mankind. This stage is called “appropriating” rather arbitrarily, since the activities of hunters, gatherers and fishermen are not limited to simple appropriation, but include a number of rather complex aspects, both in the organization of work and in the processing of products requiring a variety of technical skills.
*Producing farm*	a farm where the main source of subsistence is cultivated crops and domestic animals. When moving fromappropriating farm to a producing society moved fromhunting Andcollecting Tocattle breeding Andagriculture. Labor productivity increased and the opportunity to accumulatesurplusproduct. With the development of agriculture and cattle breeding gradually creates social stratificationand inequality. City shopping centers appearedcraft separated fromAgriculture, exchange increased, variouseconomic and cultural types both on the basis of manual labor in agriculture, and on the basis of the use of draft power of livestock, which was the next important stage inhuman development.
*Surplus product*	This is part of the social product created by direct producers in excess of what is necessary. Surplus product appears during the transformation periodprimitive communal system Vclass societywhen, as a result of increased labor productivity, the ruling class by operation begins to appropriate part of the benefits produced by workers.
*Relations of production*	relationships between people that develop in the processproduction and the movement of a product from production to consumption. The term “industrial relations” itself was developedKarl Marx.
*Division of labor*	historical process of separationvarious types of labor activity and dividing the labor process into parts, each of which is performed by a specific group of workers. *Social division of labor* - this is the division of labor primarily into productive and managerial labor.
*Tribal community*	historically the first form of social organization of people, where people are connectedblood relationship, moreover, it was a union based on collectivelabor, consumption, collective ownership of land and tools.
*Neighborhood Community*	form of social organization of people, in which the understanding of the once common kinship has already been lost. In the neighboring community, work is not carried out by a single team, although it is still voluntary and without coercion. The neighboring community still continued to unite people.
*Military democracy*	term,denoting organizationauthorities at the stage of transition fromprimitive communal system Toto the state. Adult men were considered full members of society. They had to come tonational assembly Withweapons. Without him the warrior had no powervoting rights. Military democracy existed among almost all nations, being the last stage of pre-state development of society.

The period following the Mesolithic is called Neolithic - New Stone Age. Its chronological framework is VIII-IV millennium BC. e.

At this time, the heterogeneity of economic evolution leads to the fact that backward tribes coexist in parallel, leading a nomadic lifestyle, engaged in traditional hunting, fishing and gathering and making crude and large tools, and tribes of higher hunters, fishermen and gatherers, leading highly specialized appropriation farming.

At an even higher level of economic development stood the tribes that moved from an appropriating economy to a producing one. Structure producing farm was fundamentally different from the structure of the appropriating economy: the main sectors of the economy were agriculture, cattle breeding and crafts. This transition was called in historical and economic literature neolithic revolution(X-III millennium BC).

Shifts in human economic activity were extremely significant: for the first time, thanks to the productive economy, it became possible to obtain regular, and not episodic, as before, surplus product. The result of the Neolithic revolution was a change in the nature of work and the very structure of human society, profound changes in the lifestyle and psyche of people.

Thus, the emergence of a productive economy was the greatest achievement of the primitive economy and the foundation for the entire subsequent economic history of mankind.

The oldest craft was pottery It was based on the invention of a pottery forge - a furnace for firing clay products, the temperature of which reached - 1200 ° C, and a potter's wheel - a special device for giving shape to clay products. The main thing in pottery was the production of earthenware, which made it possible to significantly improve the methods of food production and the conditions for its storage. Improving food technologies becomes an important factor in economic development.

Another ancient craft was weaving - making fabric on a handloom. To do this, people grew flax, nettles, and other crops, split the fibers, twisted them, spun them, and made ropes and threads. Thin and coarse fabrics were made from threads for the production of clothing and household needs, and bags and bags were sewn.

Stone processing technology advanced significantly, reaching perfection during the Neolithic period. Along with the old ones, new, harder rocks of minerals began to be processed.

Agriculture

The most important reason for the dramatic changes in the development of mankind during the Neolithic revolution was the beginning land cultivation. It is believed that agriculture as an independent branch of the economy originated in Western Asia. Agriculture grew out of gathering: seeds of wild plants, collected by people and not completely used, could sprout near dwellings.

The methods and techniques of farming were, of course, very primitive: the land was plowed with sticks or hoes, the harvest was done with sickles with flint blades, and the resulting harvest - grains - was ground on a stone slab or in a stone mortar - a grain grater. However, even then, almost all currently known important agricultural crops were developed - rye, wheat, oats, spelt, lentils, etc.

Gradually, agricultural technology improved: in the 4th millennium BC. e. In agriculture, such forms as cultivation of permanent plots and fallow lands, cultivation of non-irrigated (rain-fed) and even irrigated (irrigated) lands appeared. In a number of regions - in Europe, Western and Central Asia - there has been a transition from manual farming to arable land

Cattle breeding

An important branch of the economy is also becoming cattle breeding, widespread, however, like agriculture, extremely uneven. Cattle breeding evolved from hunting. An important role in its development was played by children who, by feeding young wild animals and playing with them, tamed them. The first domesticated animals were sheep, goats, cows and pigs.

At the end of the Neolithic, tribes of farmers, cattle breeders and those who led complex agricultural and livestock farming were distinguished. Europe was a zone of predominant spread of agriculture with stall breeding. In the desert and semi-desert regions of Central and Western Asia, nomadic cattle breeding predominated; East Asia was a hotbed of agriculture.

Prestigious Economy

The most important feature of the development of the economy during this period was the emergence of the so-called prestigious economy - Neolithic variant of gift exchange. As before, gift exchange existed both within and between different communities. Gifts included a wide variety of items - from livestock to useless bird feathers. Regardless of what exactly a person gave, he acquired social prestige. The economic result of gift exchange was contradictory: on the one hand, it contributed to the development of production, since certain plants were specially grown for gifts and livestock were bred; on the other hand, the gift exchange procedure was accompanied by abundant feasts, when too much was eaten and drunk in vain. Unproductive spending hampered the development of society. It is characteristic that the desire to give more than to receive in return gradually increased: the giver acquired a certain power over the taker of material values. Thus, the prestige economy contributed to social stratification and played a major role in deepening inequality in society and the formation of government institutions.

Organization of power

An important element of social organization were or men's unions, or men's houses which grew out of the natural separation of men and women. In men's houses, all adult men of the community discussed current affairs, including economic affairs, made decisions, and elected leaders. Women were not allowed to attend such meetings.

During this period, a special type of leaders is formed - in modern international historical and economic literature they are usually called big men. These were men who nominated themselves, standing out from the crowd with their personal talents, knowledge, wealth and generosity. It was from this layer that the male part of the community chose leader.

It is believed that during this period the primacy was not yet inherited. But the prerequisites for inheriting power were intensively taking shape. The leader was required to know and be able to do more than ordinary members of the community knew and could do. It was easier to pass on this knowledge, skills, and experience to a son, nephew, or brother than to strangers. A relative of a chief had a better chance of being “trained” to become a chief than others. The result of these processes formation of privileged layers of society the first nobility to emerge from the tribal elite. These were leaders, priestesses, and also the most successful in economic activities.

The end of the Neolithic, apparently, dates back to the emergence on a mass scale of such a phenomenon as wealth inequality, which was superimposed on the natural inequality that existed in the human community since ancient times, based on the different mental, intellectual, physical abilities of people. The foundations of private property are being laid and deepened as a comprehensive, permanent phenomenon, illuminated by historical tradition.

IN private property there were individual dwellings, household utensils, clothing, jewelry, household equipment, tools, livestock, boats, and other movable property.

Another type of property was collective(tribal or communal) ownership of land. Within a collective, individual people or families owned plots of land - they could be cultivated, but could not be transferred to another person for use.

Population. Everyday life

The reasons for such a sharp increase in the Neolithic population were an improvement in the quality of life and a decrease in mortality, an increase in the birth rate and a reduction in the intervals between births. For the first time in the history of mankind, there was a desire for having many children. In addition, from that time on, the previously very significant gap in life expectancy between men and women began to decrease. The population of the Earth has increased, despite the fairly frequent epidemics that have become common since the Neolithic period; epidemics were caused by the transition to sedentism and overcrowding of people.

In the Neolithic, the type of settlements itself really changed a lot - it was increasingly a permanent village built according to a specific plan in which only one person lived. community. Residents of the community are no longer only relatives, but also neighbors, and the community itself turns from a tribal community into neighbor's or territorial. The average size of the community is estimated at several hundred and even thousands of people. Houses in such villages are often built of brick - baked or adobe, as well as clay. Large communal houses are completely a thing of the past and now one patriarchal family lives in each house. They become established in society laws of patriarchy.

There have been significant changes in the position of the sexes. The foundation for this was the new order division of labor between a man and a woman, due to the specifics of the development of the most important sectors of the producing economy.

At the beginning of the Neolithic, the complication of industrial activity led to an increase labor specialization based on gender and age. Making tools was a man's job, caring for children, cooking, delivering water and fuel was a woman's job. Men also took part in agriculture and cattle breeding - they did the heavier work, and women did the most painstaking work, requiring patience and accuracy.

Science and scientific knowledge

The growth of agriculture and increasingly intensive land work contributed to the development of geometric knowledge. The first geographical maps were compiled. At the very end of the Neolithic, the wheel was invented and the development of wheeled transport began. At the same time, another event of exceptional importance occurred - the first in the history of mankind appeared. writing. This became the boundary separating primitive history from the era of civilizations.

Review questions

1. What stages are distinguished in the development of the economy of the primitive economy?

2. Explain the term “Neolithic revolution”.

3. Explain why hunting was the most important economic activity for ancient people.

4. Tell us about the most important scientific and technical inventions of mankind in the primitive era.

NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION is a term used to denote the transition from an appropriating to a producing economy.

Introduced by G. Child House in the 1930s-1940s. Being under the influence of mar-xiz-ma, Child did not understand the Neolithic revolution as an arch-cheo-logical ek-vi-va-lent transition from “di-ko” -sti" to "var-var-st-vu", according to L.G. Mor-ga-nu, created the term "Neolithic revolution" in pair with the term "City" skaya re-vo-lu-tion" (transition from "var-var-st-va" to "ci-vi-li-za-tion"), applied to history Mid-earth-no-sea, Near and Middle East, before the In-da, where the centers of wounds were located -their ci-vi-li-za-tions of the Old World. He explained the progress of the development of Europe mainly by the dif-fu-zi-ey elements of the cultures of the nearby pro-is -ho-zh-de-niya. Co-maintenance of both their terms Child-da oh-va-you-va-lo not social (like Mor-ga-na) or political (for example, school -la of the American an-tro-po-lo-ha J. Steward-da) or-ga-ni-za-tion, and a wide spectrum of so-ci-al-no-eco-no-mi-che cultural and cultural phenomena (types of villages and dwellings, food, clan of labor, tools of labor, ve -li-chi-na number of lek-ti-vov, so-ci-al-naya structure-tu-ra, ideology, etc.). “Re-in-lu-tion” was not understood as a forceful re-entry, but as a cul-mi-na-tion of a re-s-about - progress of a shift in eco-no-mi-ke and social life, which took place in the “primary” focus under the air action due to climatic conditions and population growth. Thus, in the 1930s, Child called Egypt, once in the 1950s, after the dis- pok Jar-mo, Ie-ri-ho- on the Belt caves and others, he became convinced that the economy that was produced was not to Egypt, Europe and other territories from the Middle East.

In the late 1940s - 1960s, the ideas of G. Chail-da became popular not only among ar-heo-logs, but also among shi-ro-ko-go kru -ga is-tra-va-te-lei in the USA and Western Europe. In the USSR, the appeal to the ideas of Child (V. M. Masson, N. Ya. Merpert, etc.), as consonant with Marxism, is -so-st-vo-va-lo fight against dogma-tism, over-coming isolation from world science. The main discussions were based on the mind-set of the term “re-vo-lu-tion” (and not “evolution”) to denote information about the processes involved, about the duration of life, whether there is one or several lanes -vic-centers of the Neolithic revolution, about the application of the concept of Child to other regions, about co-pos-ta-vi-mo-sti land-le-del-che-sko-zhi-vo-no-vod-che-sko-go and north-no-go (os-no-van-no-go on the pile-up ho -zya-st-ve) not-oli-ta.

In relation to the culture of the Near East, the concept of the Neolithic revolution and the “Urban revolution” turned out to be ri-sti-che-ski price-ny-mi. They have a long-lasting time in the work of R. Braid-woo-yes, take-you for the main-but-wu, but mo-di-fi-ci- ro-va-ny J. Mel-lar-tom (in part-st-no-sti, we considered that the “re-vo-lu-tion” was one-on-the-city appeared almost at the same time with the earth); sti-mu-li-ro-va-li so-ci-al-nye and de-mo-graphic studies L. Bin-for-da, K. V. Flan-ne -ri, M.N. Koen (all - USA), etc.; ways of ak-ti-vi-za-tion of inter-dis-ci-p-li-nar-projects for a complex study niyu centers of re-ho-da to the pro-from-da-household-st-vu with a wide-ro-kim with-me-no-es-te-st -ven-but-on-scientific methods (zoo-ar-heo-lo-gi-chesk, pa-leo-et-but-bo-ta-ni-che-skih, geo-mor-fo- lo-gi-che-skih, radio-ug-le-rod-no-go dati-ro-va-niya, etc.); served in ka-che-st-ve from-the-right-point for na-cha-la dis-kus-si about the pri-ori-those spirits or ma- te-ri-al-nyh impulses in the Neolithic revolution (see, for example, “re-vo-lu-tion of symbols”).

New research that has revealed the existence of formism and the significant length of the path from primitiveness to civilization li-za-tions even in the Middle East, the schema-matism of the buildings of some-following G. Chail- yes, in a positive way, skepticism and in relation to the concept he created (for example, S. Lloyd, English Egyptian scientist G. Frankfort) . Since the 1980s, J. Mellart, J. Covin (France), T. Watkins (Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-nia), M. Oz-do-gan (Tours -tion), H. Nis-sen (Germany), O. Bar-Yo-sef (Iz-ra-il), and others. -the term-new “ne-o-li-ti-za-tion” or “process of non-oli-ti-za-tion” in the quality of more suitable for the designation of the given period. Attempts to use the terms Child for the New Light (for example, by the Canadian ar-heo-lo-g R. McNish) not on-lu-chi-li shi-ro-koy support-ki (about modern ter-mi-no-lo-giya and ma-te-ria-lah about per-re-ho-de to pro-iz -for the current management, see the article Indians). For a number of reasons, they would have fallen out of use or were practically not used in relation to other . re-gio-nov.

The concept of the Neolithic revolution retains its significance in the scale of all-world history - in the sense of from-to-si-tel-but -mouth, in comparison with the previous era, the time of kar-di-nal-no-go from the different forms of hosts -stations and cultures in the main regions (Middle East, East Asia, Central America and western South America). Transition to a pro-from-the-household on other ter-ri-to-ri-yahs, with the exception of -mi (for example, the mountains of New Guinea), was the initiation-ro-van mi-gra-tion-mi and cultural dif-fu-zi-ey from the primary centers, which led to the formation of secondary centers of the Neolithic revolution, including on the basis of the do-me-sti-ka-tion of me -st species of plants and animals. In some regions (for example, in the territory of Japan, South-East and the Ti-ho-Ocean regions -tey USA) forms of culture, usually ha-rak-ter-y for agricultural non-oli-ta, arose and long-time-vi-va- were based on a specialized co-bi-ra-tel-st-va in the absence or insignificant role of the land. The concept of “City Re-vo-lu-tion” is rarely used in modern research. About the ma-te-ria-lahs associated with the Neolithic revolution, see the articles Neolith, Earth-le-de-lie, Zhi-vo-no-vod -st-vo, Pl-d-o-month.

Additional literature:

Child G. Progress and archeo-logia. M., 1949;

Mason V.M. Central Asia and Ancient East. M.; L., 1964;

Childe G. V. Man makes himself. 4th ed. L., 1970; idem. What happened in history. Harmondsworth, 1982;

Cohen M. N. The food crisis in prehistory. New Haven; L., 1978.