Reproduction (natural movement) of the population is a set of processes of fertility, mortality and natural increase, which ensures the continuous renewal and change of human generations. Or: population reproduction is the process of generational change as a result of natural (increase) movement.

Absolute indicators:

Natural increase is the difference between the number of births and deaths;
mechanical increase - the difference between the number of immigrants and emigrants.

Relative:

Fertility rate is the ratio of the total number of births in a country per year to the total population of the country, measured in thousands (i.e., the number of births for every thousand inhabitants;
mortality rate - the ratio of the total number of deaths in a country in a year to the country's population, measured in thousands (i.e., the number of deaths per thousand inhabitants);
natural increase rate - the difference between the birth rate and death rate.

These ratios are measured in ppm, but can be measured as percentages (%), i.e. In this case, calculations are carried out per 100 inhabitants.

The "formula" of reproduction is a type of recording of relative demographic indicators: birth rate - death rate = natural increase rate.

Fertility, mortality, natural population growth are basically biological processes. But, nevertheless, the socio-economic conditions of people’s lives, as well as the relationships between them in society and in the family, have a decisive influence on them.

The mortality rate depends, first of all, on the material living conditions of people: nutrition, sanitary and hygienic working and living conditions, and the development of healthcare.

The birth rate also depends on the socio-economic structure of society and the living conditions of people. But this dependence is much more complex and controversial, causing a lot of controversy in science. Most scientists associate the decline in the birth rate with the growth of cities and the spread of an urban lifestyle, which leads to an increasing involvement of women in production and social activities, an increase in the length of education for children and a general increase in the “price of a child.” Developed pension provision also leads to a decrease in the birth rate, because the role of the child as a “walking pension” is reduced to nothing. On the contrary, the rural lifestyle contributes to high birth rates, because in rural areas, a child already from 9-10 years old has extra labor. In poor countries where the social sphere is poorly developed, the child is the main breadwinner for elderly parents. High birth rates are also typical for Muslim countries, where the tradition of large families is supported by religion.

Wars, especially world wars, have a very large negative impact on the reproduction of the population, which lead to enormous human losses, both as a result of direct military action and as a result of the spread of hunger and disease, and the severance of family ties.

An increase in mortality is caused by an increase in such unfavorable phenomena as crime, industrial injuries, natural and man-made disasters, accidents, and deterioration of environmental quality.

Types of population reproduction

In the most simplified form, we can talk about two types of population reproduction.

The first type of population reproduction. Demographic crisis. The first type of population reproduction (synonyms: demographic “winter”, modern or rational type of reproduction) is characterized by low rates of fertility, mortality and, accordingly, natural increase. It has become widespread primarily in economically developed countries, where the proportion of elderly and old people is constantly growing; this in itself reduces the birth rate and increases the death rate.

But even among the countries of the first type of population reproduction, three subgroups can be distinguished.

Firstly, these are countries with an average annual natural population growth of 0.5-1% (or 5-10 people per 1000 inhabitants, or 5-10‰). In such countries, examples of which are the USA, Canada, and Australia, quite significant population growth is achieved.

To do this, it is necessary that approximately half of all families have two children, and half have three. Over time, two children “replace” their parents, and the third not only covers the loss from illnesses, accidents, etc. and “compensates” for the lack of offspring in the childless, but also ensures a sufficient overall increase.

Secondly, these are countries with “zero” or close to it natural growth. Such growth (for example, in Italy, Great Britain, Poland) no longer ensures expanded reproduction of the population, which usually stabilizes at the achieved level.

Thirdly, these are countries with negative natural increase, i.e. those where mortality exceeds birth rate. As a result, the number of their inhabitants not only does not grow, but even decreases. Demographers call this phenomenon depopulation (or demographic crisis).

Depopulation is a decrease in the population of a country or region as a result of narrowed reproduction, leading to its absolute decline.

It is most typical for Europe, where already one and a half dozen countries (Belarus, Ukraine, Hungary, Bulgaria, Germany, etc.) have negative natural growth. Recently, Russia has become one of these countries.

The transition from a large family, typical of old Russia, to a small family took place in our country during the existence of the Soviet Union. But in the 90s. First of all, with the emergence of a deep socio-economic crisis, a real “collapse” in natural population growth rates began.

In the 90s As a result of a sharp decrease in the birth rate and an increase in mortality, the population of Russia was supposed to decrease by several million people. And only thanks to the massive influx of migrants from other CIS countries and the Baltic countries, which compensated for this decline by more than 1/3, the population decline was not so great. The birth rate in Russia (less than 9 people per 1000 inhabitants) and in the late 90s. remains one of the lowest in the world.

So, in general, the economically developed countries of the world (their average natural growth rate is 0.4‰) are characterized by the so-called “rational” or “modern” type of population reproduction, mainly corresponding to the urban image and high standard of living of their population. But this does not exclude the fact that a number of European countries are experiencing a demographic crisis, which negatively affects or may affect their development.

The second type of population reproduction. "Population explosion". The second type of population reproduction (synonyms: demographic “winter”) is characterized by high and very high birth rates and natural increase and relatively low death rates. It is typical primarily for developing countries.

Of course, this is largely due to the persistence of the thousand-year-old traditions of early marriages and large families. The average family size is still 6 people; As a rule, this is a three-generation family (parents, their children and grandchildren). In addition, it remains the main means of maintaining a living wage, and children continue to serve as the main support for parents in old age. And child mortality in these countries still remains significant. Factors such as the predominance of the rural population, insufficient level of education, and weak involvement of women in production continue to have an impact. For Muslim countries, this is also the dominant religion, according to which family planning is unacceptable.

At the end of the 90s. the average annual rate of natural increase in developing countries was 1.7%, that is, it was more than 5.5 times higher than in economically developed countries.

But even against this background, the least developed countries stand out especially, where 600 million people live, or 1/10 of the total population of the planet. They are distinguished by the highest rates of fertility and natural increase (2.6%), which is why it is among them that one should look for “world record holders.”

You will find such “record holders” in terms of average annual population growth among the countries of Tropical Africa and South-West Asia.

This phenomenon of rapid population growth in countries of the second type of reproduction in the middle of the 20th century. received in the literature the figurative name of the demographic explosion. Today, these countries (together with China) account for almost 4/5 of the planet's total population and 90% of its annual growth. Including the population of Asia increases annually by approximately 45 million people, Africa - by almost 20 million, Latin America - by more than 6 million.

If in 1900, of the 15 largest countries in the world by population, seven were in Europe, five in Asia and three in America, then at the turn of 2000 only one European country (Germany) remained on this list, but there were nine Asian ones ( China, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Japan, Vietnam, Philippines, Iran), as well as three American (USA, Brazil, Mexico), one African (Nigeria) and Russia.

All this means that developing countries have and will continue to have a decisive impact on the size and reproduction of the population, primarily determining the demographic situation throughout the world.

First type of population reproduction

The first type of population reproduction: demographic crisis.

The first type of population reproduction is characterized by low rates of birth rate, death rate and, accordingly, natural increase.

It has become widespread primarily in economically developed countries, where the proportion of elderly and old people is constantly growing; this in itself reduces the birth rate and increases the death rate. However, in addition to the demographic factor, reasons of a socio-economic nature also play an important role, causing increased mortality from diseases, unsettled life, military conflicts, increased crime, industrial injuries, various types of natural and man-made disasters, accidents, as well as from deterioration in the quality of the environment. environment.

But among the countries of the first type of population reproduction, three subgroups can be distinguished:

Firstly, these are countries with an average annual natural population growth of 0.5-1% (or 5-10 people per 1000 inhabitants, or 5-10%). In such countries, examples of which are the USA, Canada, and Australia, quite significant population growth is achieved.
Secondly, these are countries with “zero” or close to natural growth. Such growth (for example, in Italy, Great Britain, Poland) no longer ensures expanded reproduction of the population, which usually stabilizes at the achieved level.
Thirdly, these are countries with negative natural increase, i.e. those where mortality exceeds birth rate. As a result, the number of their inhabitants not only does not grow, but even decreases.

Demographers call this phenomenon depopulation (or demographic crisis). It is most typical for Europe, where already one and a half dozen countries (Belarus, Ukraine, Hungary, Bulgaria, Germany, etc.) have negative natural growth.

High level of socio-economic development (family income increases and the number of children decreases);
High level of urbanization - 75%, rapid income growth (in rural areas the birth rate is higher, in cities the birth rate is lower);
Changing the status of women, emancipation and the emergence of a new value system;
An increase in the proportion of older ages - “aging of the nation” (in Great Britain, France, etc.), a decrease in the age of young people;
Consequences of wars and military conflicts, terrorism;
Industrial injuries; man-made disasters: automobile accidents annually claim up to 250 thousand human lives, road accidents - 60,000, accidents;
Mortality from diseases (AIDS, cancer, etc.);
Natural disasters.

So, in general, the economically developed countries of the world (their average natural growth rate is 0.4%o) are characterized by the so-called “rational” type of population reproduction, which mainly corresponds to the high standard of living of their population. But this does not exclude the fact that a number of European countries are experiencing a demographic crisis, which negatively affects or may affect their development.

The first type of population reproduction is narrowed reproduction. The first type of population reproduction is characterized by low rates of fertility, mortality and, accordingly, natural increase. It has become widespread in economically developed countries, where the proportion of elderly and old people is constantly growing; this in itself reduces the birth rate and increases the death rate. Firstly, these are countries with an average annual population growth of 0.5-1%. Examples of such countries are the USA, Canada, and Australia. Secondly, these are countries with “zero” or close to natural growth, for example, Italy, Great Britain, Poland. Thirdly, these are countries with negative natural growth, i.e. those where the mortality rate exceeds the birth rate, as a result the number of inhabitants not only does not grow, but even decreases. This phenomenon is called depopulation (or demographic crisis). It is typical for countries such as Belarus, Ukraine, Hungary, Bulgaria, Germany, and Russia.

The second type of population reproduction is expanded reproduction. The second type of population reproduction is characterized by high and very high rates of fertility and natural increase and relatively low rates of mortality. It is typical primarily for developing countries. At the end of the 90s. the average annual rate of natural increase in developing countries was 1.7%, i.e. was more than 5.5 times higher than in economically developed countries. The highest rates of natural growth are characteristic of the countries of Tropical Africa and South-West Asia. This phenomenon of rapid population growth of the second type of reproduction is called the “demographic explosion.”

A change in the type of population reproduction depending on socio-economic living conditions is called the demographic transition. The scheme of such a transition includes four stages. The first stage covers almost the entire history of mankind. It is characterized by very high birth and death rates and, accordingly, very low natural increase. Nowadays it is found almost nowhere. The second stage is characterized by a sharp reduction in mortality (primarily due to advances in medicine) while maintaining the traditionally high birth rate. This stage corresponds to a demographic explosion. The third stage is characterized by maintaining low mortality rates, and sometimes even increasing them due to the “aging” of the population. The birth rate also decreases, but usually slightly exceeds the death rate, ensuring moderate population growth. When moving to the fourth stage, the birth and death rates coincide. This means a transition to population stabilization and corresponds to the first type of reproduction.

It is thanks to the high birth rate in Asia that an official Great Wall Hover 2 dealer is currently operating in Russia, bringing products directly from China. All this allows us to achieve the best price-quality ratio. It is in the small car segment that the Chinese are now especially strong.

Modern population reproduction

Modern:

Low birth rate associated with conscious regulation of family size;
- continuous increase in life expectancy;
- rapid aging of the age structure of the population;
- endless sexual contacts.

In the process of development of production, science, and culture, changes occur in the reproduction of the population. From the second third of the 20th century. A typology based on identifying the stages of the demographic history of mankind began to spread. Currently, demographers distinguish three historical types of reproduction: archetype, traditional and modern.

The archetype of population reproduction dominated among tribes at the stage of appropriating economy (gathering, hunting, fishing). The population growth rate was 10-20% per millennium. Hunger, disease, and constant clashes with other tribes caused a high mortality rate of the population - 50% and above. Infant mortality was especially high. The average life expectancy did not exceed 20 years. Only a high birth rate, slightly higher than the death rate, saved people from extinction. This birth rate was supported by early marriages and the gradually emerging traditions of large families (cult of fertility). However, fertility was below the physiological maximum due to the rapid aging of women, unsanitary conditions, infertility, and difficult living conditions. Population numbers were regulated by the productivity of landscapes. Population growth could only occur through the development of new territories.

The transition to the traditional (less often “primitive”, “pre-industrial”) type of reproduction is associated with the so-called Neolithic revolution, marked by the emergence of agriculture and cattle breeding, the transition to sedentism, and the formation of permanent settlements. This type of reproduction is dominant in pre-capitalist agrarian societies, characterized by improved living conditions, a decrease in mortality from hunger, an increase in the birth rate (alleviation of the situation of pregnant women, selection of marriage couples, early marriages, reinforcement of large families not only by traditions, but also by legislative acts, attitudes of most religious systems ).

The birth rate at this time was determined by the level of natural fertility and the proportion of women of different ages who were married. Marriage was the main social instrument for its regulation: celibacy, age at marriage, the spread of divorces and remarriages of widows and divorcees largely shaped the birth rate. Various methods of intentionally preventing births have been known for a long time, but were used only in cases of extramarital affairs, because Illegitimate births were condemned, and their use in marriage was prohibited by social and cultural norms.

Despite the fact that these eras were characterized by unlimited fertility, it was not very high. The birth rate was determined not only by the existing norms of reproductive behavior, focused on the maximum number of births, but also by the duration of the fertile period and the health status of the population, mainly women. The duration of the fertile period was determined by the low average life expectancy of people, which in ancient states did not reach 25 years, in medieval Europe it only slightly exceeded 25 years, in the late Middle Ages it was usually no higher than 30 years and almost never exceeded 35 years. A very low level of development of medicine, widespread diseases, and unsatisfactory conditions of obstetric care contributed to the spread of infertility.

The low level of productive forces and the great dependence of man on the natural forces of nature determined high mortality rates, mainly of an exogenous nature. Systematic crop failures, famine, constant wars and epidemics led to a significant reduction in the population. Thus, in Germany, as a result of the Thirteen Years' War (XVII century), certain areas fell into complete desolation, many villages disappeared from the face of the earth. The massive plague epidemic - the "Black Death", which broke out in Europe in 1348-1350, claimed 25-35 million human lives, i.e. almost 30% of the total population. During the famine in Ireland in 1846-1851. About 15% of the total population died.

In more favorable years, mortality rates decreased and population growth occurred. However, in general, these formations were characterized by very low growth rates, characterized by alternating periods with positive natural population growth and negative ones.

The modern type of population reproduction arises initially in countries of developed capitalism. The transition from an agricultural to an industrial, and later to a post-industrial economy leads to a sharp decrease in human dependence on nature. At this time, socio-economic rather than natural and biological factors play a leading role in population reproduction.

The transition to modern mortality in the 19th century. began only in a small number of advanced countries at that time (foreign European countries, North America, Australia, New Zealand). But gradually, already in the twentieth century, socio-economic development and the spread of medical achievements involved more and more states in this process. Later than others, the countries of Latin America, Asia and Africa joined this process.

A sharp reduction in mortality from hunger and infectious diseases, as well as an increase in average life expectancy, also entailed a gradual change in the type of birth rate. In the second half of the 19th century. In the countries of Western Europe, a slow and then intensive decline in the birth rate began, which gradually spread to all European countries, as well as other developed countries of the world. The decline in fertility occurs as the reproductive behavior of the population changes, which is a consequence of profound social changes taking place in society.

One of the important tasks of the geographical sciences of population is to identify the demographic situation (demographic situation), understood as the state of demographic processes in a certain period of time, representing a stage in a long-term trend in population development. To analyze it, the type and mode of reproduction of the population of a separate territory or social community must be determined.

Population reproduction indicators

The dynamics and nature of changes in the population of any territory are determined by its mechanical (migration) and natural movement. The constant renewal of the population based on natural movement, migration, as well as the transition of the population from one social group to another is called population reproduction.

Sometimes the term “population reproduction” is understood in a narrower sense only as the process of generational change due to natural movement.

Population reproduction (natural movement) is a set of processes of fertility and mortality that ensure the constant renewal and change of generations of people. If the birth rate exceeds the death rate, then there is a natural increase in the population, and if on the contrary, then there is a natural decline. There are a number of stages in the evolution of this process that are closely related to the development of the entire society. The commonality of the most important qualitative features in demographic development is fixed by historical types of population reproduction. In quantitative form, the process is reflected by indicators of the population reproduction regime.

Fertility

To characterize the intensity of the birth rate, the total fertility rate is most often used - the number of births per year per 1000 inhabitants. It is simply calculated and convenient for comparing fertility levels in different territories.

To more accurately determine fertility, a number of other indicators are used.

Special fertility rate, or fertility rate (fertility), is the number of births per year per 1000 women of childbearing (fertile) age (15 - 49 years). In 1998, its value in the world was 2.78, in African countries - 4.70, and in Germany - only 1.33.

Age-specific fertility rates are the average number of births per year per 1000 women of a given age. The total fertility rate is the average number of children one woman has over her entire life. Now its value in the world is 3.0, in Africa – 5.6, in Russia – 1.2, in Germany – 1.3.

In ancient times and the Middle Ages, the birth rate was almost everywhere very high, close to the physiological maximum (50 - 60%). It began to decline noticeably from the end of the 18th century - with the development of capitalism, an increase in the general educational and cultural level of people, and the expansion of women’s participation in social production. At the beginning of the 20th century, the average birth rate in the world was 40 - 45%, in 1950 - 1955. – 37.3%o, and now – 22.6%o. The birth rate is determined by a large number of factors.

It is influenced purely by:

Demographic reasons;
gender and age composition of the population;
family structure;
marriageable age;
the strength of family foundations;
infant mortality rate, etc.

However, socio-economic, ethnic, psychological and other factors are decisive, including:

Material well-being of people;
woman's social status;
level of education and culture of people;
national and religious traditions;
character of settlement;
climatic features (in hot climates, puberty occurs earlier in people).

One part of the factors contributes to an increase in the birth rate, while the other contributes to its decrease. For example, the canons of Catholicism, Islam and most other religions encourage fertility and oppose artificially limiting the number of children in families. On the contrary, the birth rate is negatively affected by wars, political and economic crises, rising unemployment, the development of the urbanization process, etc. Different territorial combinations of factors cause large geographical differences in the intensity of the birth rate. Over 1/3 of the world's countries (Asia, Africa and Latin America) have a very high birth rate, and more than 1/4 have a low birth rate (Europe, North America, Australia). In developing countries it is 2.2 times higher than in economically developed countries - 25.4 versus 11.4%. The contrasts between individual countries are even greater. Thus, the birth rate in Germany and Italy is 3–4 times lower than in Bangladesh and Nigeria. In economically developed countries, lower levels of fertility are explained by later completion of education and family formation. In these states, the birth rate is more strictly controlled in families; the population structure has a large proportion of elderly people, unmarried people, as well as childless families or families with one child. In developing countries, trends towards a decrease in the birth rate are increasingly evident, but in general its traditionally high level still remains. Families in these countries are formed much earlier, and the number of children is often not controlled at all. One survey of the population of Bangladesh found that about 90% of married couples are aware of family planning options, but less than 30% of families practice birth control.

Mortality and life expectancy

An approximate estimate of the population mortality rate is given by the overall mortality rate - the number of deaths per year per 1000 inhabitants. A more accurate indicator of mortality is its age-specific values, since the probability of death of people of different ages is not the same. It is usually elevated in the first year of life, minimal among children aged 5–14 years, and then gradually increases, sharply increasing among older people.

The infant mortality rate is one of the most important indicators of the socio-economic living conditions of the population, sanitary and hygienic culture, and the effectiveness of the health service. It is usually estimated using the infant mortality rate - the number of children who die during the first year of life in a given year per 1,000 children born alive in the same year.

The mortality rate in the world until the 18th century was very high - 40 - 50%, then it began to gradually decline. In the 50s of the twentieth century - 19.6%o, and at the end of the century - 8.9%o. The global process of decreasing mortality is leading to convergence of indicators in different types of countries. Moreover, many economically developed countries already have significantly higher mortality rates than developing countries. For example, in Great Britain and Germany in recent years it has stabilized within 10–11%o, which is almost 2 times higher than in Mexico and Venezuela. One of the main reasons for such contrasts in the mortality rate is the specific age composition of the population, primarily the different proportion of elderly people. In Great Britain and Germany, people aged 65 years and older make up 15–16% of the population, and, for example, in Mexico - only 3%.

The highest overall mortality rates (20 - 30%) are in the poorest countries in the world - Sierra Leone, Mali, Ethiopia, Angola. They are minimal (less than 3%) in the Arab oil-producing countries of the Persian Gulf (Kuwait, UAE), where the share of immigrant workers in adulthood is very significant and the share of children and elderly people is relatively small. Yet overall mortality rates in the world as a whole are less contrasting than fertility rates. In 107 out of 150 countries, they range from 5 to 15,000.

The health status and mortality of the population are greatly influenced by the level of well-being and living conditions of people, as well as the degree of development of the healthcare sector. A number of negative phenomena and global problems impede the reduction of population mortality. Thus, according to UN estimates, today 1.5 billion people in the world are deprived of basic health care and almost 1.3 billion people live on less than one dollar a day. 1/3 of the entire population of the planet does not have access to safe drinking water. Only 1/3 of humanity is provided with sufficiently high-calorie (2400 kcal per day per person) and high-quality food, and about 700-850 million people often go hungry. This problem is especially acute in Africa.

An important indicator of the health status of the population is the average life expectancy of people. In Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire it averaged 25 years, in the mid-20th century it was 46 years, and by 2000 it had increased to 66 years. However, as before, there remains a large geographical contrast in these indicators. The average life expectancy of the population is maximum in Japan - 80 years, slightly lower - 78 years - in Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, Canada and Australia, and minimum - 40 - 45 years - in Eritrea, Mozambique and Uganda. Thus, in many developing countries, average life expectancy is 1.5 - 2 times less than in economically developed countries.

The average life expectancy is different for men and women. In general, in the world, representatives of the “weaker sex” live 3 years longer than men. In many economically developed countries, the difference in life expectancy is 6–7 years in favor of women, reaching a maximum of 12 years in Russia (61 and 73 years) and 9 years in France, Hungary and Poland. The main reason for this phenomenon is the greater vitality of the female body, as well as the wider spread of bad habits among the male population - alcoholism and smoking, more frequent accidents at work and at home, murder and suicide. In most developing countries the situation is largely similar. although among them there are those where the average life span of women is shorter than that of men (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh). This is closely related to women’s early marriages, frequent childbirth, and hard work at home and in agriculture.

Second type of population reproduction

The second type of population reproduction: “demographic explosion”.

The second type of population reproduction is characterized by high and very high fertility and natural increase rates and relatively low mortality rates. It is typical primarily for developing countries. After gaining independence, these countries were able to make wider use of the achievements of modern medicine, sanitation and hygiene - primarily to combat epidemic diseases. This led to a fairly sharp reduction in mortality. The birth rate for the most part remained at a high level. At the end of the 90s. the average annual rate of natural increase in developing countries was 1.7%, that is, it was more than 5.5 times higher than in economically developed countries.

But even against this background, the least developed countries stand out especially, where 600 million people live, or 1/10 of the total population of the planet. They are distinguished by the highest rates of fertility and natural increase (2.6%), which is why it is among them that one should look for “world record holders.” You will find such “record holders” in terms of average annual population growth among the countries of Tropical Africa and South-West Asia. This phenomenon of rapid population growth in countries of the second type of reproduction in the middle of the 20th century. received in the literature the figurative name of the demographic explosion. Today, these countries (together with China) account for almost 4/5 of the planet's total population and 90% of its annual growth.

In particular, the population of Asia increases annually by approximately 45 million people, Africa - by almost 20 million, Latin America - by more than 6 million. If in 1900, of the 15 largest countries in the world by population, seven were in Europe, five in Asia and three in America, then at the turn of 2000 there was only one European country left on this list (Germany), but there were nine Asian ones (China, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Japan, Vietnam, the Philippines, Iran), as well as three American (USA, Brazil, Mexico), one African (Nigeria) and Russia.

Socio-economic reasons causing high birth rates:

Low level of economic development, with a predominance of agriculture (RS);
Low level of urbanization – 41% (in rural areas the birth rate is higher);
A peculiar social structure, religious customs that encourage large families;
Subjugation of women, early marriages;
Using the achievements of modern medicine to combat epidemic diseases, improving sanitary culture;
Prohibitions on family planning in Muslim countries.

All this means that developing countries have and will continue to have a decisive impact on the size and reproduction of the population, primarily determining the demographic situation throughout the world.

Assessing the structure of Indian society, it is easy to see that it is largely agrarian. Therefore, for those married couples, clans with many children, it is much easier and better to survive, because an extra pair of hands in their household is a great help. The second type of population reproduction includes families where many children are born, but at the same time, alas, they have a high mortality rate and, on average, low life expectancy. By the way, this is due, first of all, to hard physical labor and meager food.

Natural reproduction of the population

The number and distribution of people are mainly influenced by two factors: the natural movement (reproduction) of the population and its migration (mechanical movement of the population).

The natural movement of the population is characterized by such indicators as the level of fertility, mortality, natural increase, and the average life expectancy of people. The ratio of these values ​​reflects the reproduction mode. Thus, the reproduction (natural movement) of the population is understood as the totality of the processes of fertility, mortality and natural increase in the number of people.

It is customary to express quantitatively the indicators of fertility, mortality and natural increase per 1000 inhabitants - in ppm ‰). World population reproduction formula:

28‰ (birth rate) - 10‰ (mortality) = 18‰ (natural increase)

Thus, the rate of natural increase per thousand inhabitants for the world as a whole was 18 people. The world average life expectancy is 66 years.

The birth rate is significantly influenced by the material and cultural level of people, the position of women in society, the characteristics of the gender and age structure of the population, national traditions and customs, religious prejudices, government policy in the field of population, etc. Unemployment has a negative impact, the birth rate sharply decreases during crisis periods.

Mortality is primarily affected by the level of development of the healthcare system, the level of well-being of the population, and the age structure of residents.

In different countries, these factors affect differently, which causes strong fluctuations in fertility, mortality, and natural increase. Based on the ratio of fertility and mortality rates in different countries of the world, two types of population reproduction are distinguished. The first type of population reproduction is characterized by relatively low rates of fertility, mortality and natural increase. Countries included in this group are characterized by high life expectancy (on average more than 75 years). This so-called “modern” type of reproduction is most widespread in economically developed countries - North America, Western and Eastern Europe, Japan and Australia. In some of them (Germany, Denmark, Austria, Sweden, Great Britain, Italy, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria) expanded population reproduction stopped altogether, i.e. its numbers have either stabilized or decreased and there is a natural decline. The number of these countries has now been supplemented by Russia, in which the birth rate was 9.3%, mortality - 15.0%, natural increase - minus (-) 5.7 ppm.

The second type of population reproduction is characterized by high and very high rates of fertility and natural increase and relatively low rates of mortality. This type of population reproduction is most widespread in developing countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. These countries managed to achieve a significant reduction in mortality, but their birth rate has always been traditionally high.

Population migration is the movement of people associated with a permanent, temporary or seasonal change of their place of residence. Migrations are characterized by the following quantitative indicators: volume (scale) of migration - the number of migrants arriving and leaving over a certain time; migration intensity - the ratio of the volume of migration to the number of residents (per 1000 and 10,000 people); migration balance - the difference between the number of arrivals and departures of people over a certain time; migration efficiency is the ratio of the balance of migration to the number of migrants.

Migration flows are classified according to their immediate causes (economic, political, etc.), timing (seasonal, temporary and final), directions (external and internal), composition of migrants (doctors, scientists, workers, etc.), degree of state organization etc. External migrations are divided into emigration (the departure of citizens from their country to another country) and immigration (the entry of citizens into another country). Types of internal migrations of the population - the movement of people from villages to the city, from depressed areas where unemployment is especially high, to areas of new economic construction, etc. Among the various forms of external migration of the population, international labor migration is especially distinguished, which is carried out in the form of the movement of workers from one country to another.

Intercountry labor migration is an integral part of the modern world economic system. The number of workers who move annually amounts to tens of millions of people; The international labor market covers more than 100 countries.

The reasons for international labor migration are, first of all:

Differences in the level of economic development of individual countries;
the presence of national differences in wages;
the presence of organic unemployment in a number of countries, etc.

Labor migrates mainly from countries with low standards of living to countries with higher standards. The main direction of intercountry labor migration:

From developing and former socialist countries to the industrialized countries of the world (the use of foreign labor in industrialized countries has become commonplace, an indispensable condition for the normal functioning of their national economies - geoglobus.ru. The largest influx of immigrants currently has the USA and Western European countries - Germany , France, Belgium, Sweden, Switzerland, Luxembourg, etc.);
between developing countries (large immigration centers are Latin American countries - Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, Venezuela; oil-producing Asian countries - Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, UAE, Bahrain, etc.);
between industrialized countries (the “brain drain” from developed European countries to the United States, labor migration within the EU, etc., has taken on a huge scale).

Population reproduction process

The study of population reproduction developed in the 19th-20th centuries. as the public need to understand the demographic changes taking place in the world grows. The first attempts to comprehend population reproduction as a unity of fertility and mortality were made back in the 18th century by the mathematician L. Euler. For a long time, interest in the analysis of individual aspects of the “natural” movement of the population clearly prevailed over their synthesis within the framework of the study of population reproduction as a whole. Only in the first decade of the 20th century, in connection with the creation of a stable population model, did it become possible to see the process of population reproduction as something holistic, to understand its inherent internal quantitative dependencies.

Population reproduction is a probabilistic process, one of the main processes of reproduction of society, which is formed by a mass of random, isolated events - births and deaths. The long-term existence of populations presupposes the preservation of the fundamental conditions of their interaction with the external environment, which is only possible if the flow of demographic events is not chaotic, but ordered in a certain way. Such orderliness actually occurs and is a consequence of the self-organization of the demographic system. These processes also take place in nature, due to which the continuity of reproduction of plant and animal populations and the relative stability of their numbers are achieved. Control of population reproduction in nature has a biological basis.

With the emergence of human society, the system for regulating the reproduction of populations undergoes a qualitative change, biological mechanisms for controlling reproduction are replaced by social ones, we are talking about managing not processes occurring at the individual level - birth and death remain biological phenomena - but about consciously stimulating or restraining fertility and mortality at the level populations.

Considering population reproduction only as processes of reproduction of people - as carriers of all social relations, without specifying this concept, the idea may arise that the concept of “population reproduction” is expanded to the concept of “processes of social production”. Consequently, the study of population reproduction in all the richness of their social characteristics leads to blurring the boundaries of the population reproduction process itself.

According to Medkov, population reproduction is the constant renewal of its numbers and structure, both through the natural replacement of outgoing generations with new ones, and the transition of some parts to others.

According to the definition proposed in the encyclopedic dictionary “Population”, population reproduction is the constant renewal of the population as a result of the processes of fertility and mortality, and for certain regions, migration. In a narrower sense, population reproduction is the renewal of generations of people as a result of births and deaths.

Thus, despite the limit of each person’s life, the population continues to exist, maintaining or changing its numbers and structure.

In a broad sense, the term “population reproduction” includes the renewal and development of the composition of the population: by sex and age; community groups; nationalities, marital status; education, professional composition.

There are three types of population reproduction:

Restricted reproduction is when the living population does not reproduce a replacement for itself. The absolute number of passing generations exceeds the number of generations entering life. This type is typical for countries with “zero” or close to it natural growth or with negative growth, i.e. countries where the death rate exceeds the birth rate. Demographers call this phenomenon depopulation or demographic crisis.

Depopulation (from the French depopulatin) is a decrease in the population of a country or region as a result of narrowed reproduction, leading to absolute loss.

The decline in the birth rate in industrialized countries is usually associated with the spread of an urban lifestyle, in which children turn out to be a “burden” for parents. Industrial production and the service sector require highly qualified personnel. The consequence of this is the need for long-term study, lasting until the age of 21-23. The decision to have a second or third child is strongly influenced by a woman’s high involvement in the labor process, her desire to make a career and be financially independent.

Simple reproduction means that the generation of children replacing the generation of parents and the generation of parents are equal in absolute numbers. In such a population, a permanent sex-age structure (stationary type) is formed. The total population is not increasing; under certain unfavorable conditions, there is a high probability of a transition to narrowed reproduction. It is characterized by low rates of birth rate, death rate and, accordingly, natural increase. (This method has become widespread in economically developed countries of Europe and North America).

Socio-economic reasons causing low birth rates:

High level of socio-economic development (family income increases and the number of children decreases);
high level of urbanization - 75%, rapid income growth;
changes in the status of women, emancipation and the emergence of a new value system;
an increase in the proportion of older people;
“aging of the nation” (Great Britain, France), decreasing age of the young;
consequences of wars, military conflicts, terrorism;
industrial injuries, man-made disasters (car accidents kill up to 250 thousand people annually), road traffic accidents (up to 60 thousand people die);
mortality from diseases (AIDS, cancer);
natural disasters.

Expanded reproduction is characterized by an increase in each new generation entering life compared to the number of outgoing generations. A progressive type of age-sex structure is emerging in the population, and its absolute numbers are growing. This type of population reproduction is characterized by high and very high fertility and natural increase rates and relatively low mortality rates. It is typical primarily for developing countries (countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America).

Socio-economic reasons causing high birth rates:

Low level of economic development, with a predominance of agriculture (developing countries);
low level of urbanization – 41% (in rural areas the birth rate is higher);
a peculiar social structure, religious customs that encourage large families;
servitude of women, early marriages;
using the achievements of modern medicine to combat epidemic diseases, improving sanitary culture;
prohibitions on family planning in Muslim countries.

After gaining independence, these countries were able to make wider use of the achievements of modern medicine, sanitation and hygiene - primarily to combat epidemic diseases. This led to a fairly sharp reduction in mortality. The birth rate for the most part remained at a high level.

The most important characteristics of population reproduction include the so-called general fertility and mortality rates, which are calculated as the ratio, respectively, of the number of live births and the number of deaths during a calendar year to the average annual population size.

Mortality. An analysis of the factors that led to Russia's huge lag behind countries with low mortality, and the structures of the main causes of death, indicates that mortality is very high in Russia.

It is clear that if, over the course of decades, the birth rate of a population decreases and the death rate increases, the prospect of population decline (depopulation) becomes inevitable. It is enough to look at /P.3/ to conclude that over almost the last 40 years in Russia, mortality has been steadily increasing, the birth rate has not increased, and since the mid-80s it has also begun to decline rapidly. This led to mortality rates steadily exceeding birth rates.

The values ​​of expected life expectancy indicate that even with an optimistic view of the future trend in mortality, Russia will not reach the levels of life expectancy found in most economically developed countries, but will only come somewhat closer to them.

Fertility. We can expect the birth rate to stabilize or even increase slightly in the long term.

It is known that, as a rule, the birth rate among rural residents of Russia is higher than among urban residents. At the same time, there were 13 territories in Russia where a higher birth rate was observed among the urban population. These included Pskov, Leningrad, Smolensk, Ryazan, Kursk, Bryansk, Voronezh, Belgorod, Lipetsk, Penza, Ulyanovsk and Magadan regions, as well as the Republic of Mordovia. For the first five regions and the Republic of Mordovia, this situation remained, in the remaining regions listed above, it changed to the opposite, and the Novgorod region, the Komi Republic, the Kostroma and Ivanovo regions, the Evenki Autonomous Okrug, the Republic of Ingushetia were added to the territories with a higher birth rate in urban areas and Kalmykia and Sakhalin region. As a hypothesis about the factors whose impact can lead to a lower birth rate of the rural population, we can propose a hypothesis about a significant decrease in the standard of living and demographic potential of the rural population in the relevant territories. Demographic potential is understood as a certain characteristic associated with an increased (high potential) or decreased (low potential) proportion of children and the female population capable of childbearing.

The most informative indicator characterizing the state and prospects for reproduction of the population of a territory is the coefficient of natural increase, which is calculated as the difference between the general birth rate and the general mortality rate and does not depend on the direction and intensive migration exchange of a given territory with its surroundings. The coefficient of natural increase in rural and urban areas is presented on the map in /P.6/. A positive coefficient of natural increase means that the population of the territory under consideration is increasing, and a negative one means that the population of the territory is decreasing.

Natural growth. Negative indicators of natural growth are observed in all regions of the Northwestern, Central (except for the Bryansk and Oryol regions), other regions of the European part of Russia, with the exception of the North Caucasus, as well as East Siberian and Far Eastern. Indicators of natural decline in the Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow and Sakhalin regions are 2.3 - 1.4 times higher than the Russian average (-13.0 - -8.0 ppm versus -5.7 in the Russian Federation). The excess of mortality over the birth rate is associated not only with the deterioration of socio-economic conditions as a result of market transformations in the economy, the decline in the standard of living of the majority of the Russian population, the continued aging of the population, immigration processes, and the increased loss of the working-age population: the share of the working-age population in the total number of deaths reaches thirty%. The decline in the total population is also influenced by the unfavorable ecological state of the environment in many regions of the Russian Federation. According to experts from the World Health Organization, up to 30% of population diseases are caused by anthropological pollution of the environment. Natural decline is also typical for the states of Western and Central Europe (Germany, Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania) and individual CIS countries (Ukraine and Belarus). However, Russia significantly exceeds the noted foreign countries in this indicator.

The positive dynamics of natural growth continues in the national formations of the North Caucasus, Volga region, Eastern Siberia and the Far East. High population growth is observed in Ingushetia (24 people per 1000 people), Tuva (20 people), and the Republic of Sakha (15 people). This is due to the preservation of the historical traditions of large families in these republics, as well as the high proportion of the population living in rural areas, where the birth rate remains high.

Population migration is the process of moving people across the borders of certain territories with a change of permanent place of residence or with a regular return to it. Population migration promotes the exchange of labor skills, experience and knowledge, promotes personal development, affects family composition and age and gender structure, and leads to personnel renewal. It allows, at each stage of economic development, to achieve a certain allocation of labor resources corresponding to a given territorial organization of productive forces, to achieve a dynamic balance between the demand and supply of labor in the economic regions of the country, taking into account its qualitative characteristics.

In recent years, the importance of migration has sharply increased in the formation of the population and its distribution throughout the country.

The main factors affecting migration in the future will be:

The pace of economic development, the speed and depth of market transformations;
- geography of the field of labor potential within Russia and the former USSR;
- geopolitical position of Russia;
- insufficient demographic potential of Russia, inadequate for its territory.

Thus, the influx of population from new foreign countries will be the most important source of migration growth in Russia’s population in the coming decades. In addition, we should expect significant migration to Russia of representatives of indigenous ethnic groups of Central Asia, Transcaucasia, and, to a lesser extent, Kazakhstan, associated in conditions of agricultural overpopulation with the pushing of excess labor resources in search of jobs. Russia is one of the most likely destinations for economic migration of people from Central Asia and Transcaucasia.

Population reproduction structure

Population is the totality of people living in a certain territory.

The population is constantly reproducing and is in the process of independent development, which is the main source of labor resources. The process of reproduction itself is associated with natural processes of movement of human resources.

There are 3 types of movement:

1) natural movement is the result of mortality and fertility of people. In the case of a predominant birth rate, the result is a natural increase in the population, and in the case of mortality, a natural decline;
2) migration movement is the result of the arrival and departure of people. Associated with various political, economic and other reasons and, as a rule, is in the nature of moving to areas for employment opportunities;
3) social movement - the result of changes in social structures, such as national, professional, educational.

There are 3 reproduction modes:

1) extended regime is the predominance of the number of births over the number of deaths. To ensure this regime, there must be at least 260 children for every 100 families;
2) a narrowed regime (or depopulation regime) is a reduction in population due to the predominance of the number of deaths over the number of births;
3) simple reproduction mode is the absence of population growth. The number of births is equal to the number of deaths.

For labor resources, the main source of formation is considered to be the young generation of working age.

There are 2 types of reproduction:

1) extensive view. It is characterized by a high mortality rate, the predominance of the younger generation, and a low population growth rate;
2) intense look. This species is characterized by an increased standard of living, an increase in the number of older generations and an increase in the life expectancy of people.

The structure of the population and labor resources includes the distribution of people according to certain characteristics:

1) by age;
2) by gender;
3) by profession (specialty);
4) by education;
5) at the place of residence;
6) by belonging to political parties and religious beliefs, etc.

The structure of labor resources is characterized by the following indicators of dynamics (movement):

1) absolute increase;
2) growth rate;
3) growth rate.

1. Absolute gain (TR) is determined by the following formula:
Tpr = Rn – Ro,
where Tpr is the absolute increase in TR for a certain period (quarter, year, etc.);
Ro and Rn are the number of TR at the beginning and end of the period, respectively.
2. Growth rate - the ratio of the absolute number of labor resources at the end of a certain period to the absolute number at the beginning of the same period.
3. The growth rate is calculated using the following formula:
Tps = Rn / Ro – 1 (2)
To determine the dynamics over several years, average annual data is found using the formulas:
Trc = Rn/Ro; Tnc = nRn/Ro – 1 (3),
where Trs is the growth rate (average annual);
n - number of years.

Traditional type of population reproduction

The new type of population reproduction, which arose during the Neolithic, reigned supreme throughout the world until the 18th century, and among a significant part of the world's population it is far from completely eradicated even today. The main features of this type of reproduction are inextricably linked with the agricultural economy and the corresponding social relations and culture.

It is difficult to overestimate the role that agriculture, which arose in the Neolithic era, played in human history. It formed the economic basis of all pre-capitalist class modes of production. On the basis of the agricultural economy, brilliant civilizations of antiquity developed, the ancient world of Greece and Rome flourished, and the European Renaissance matured. For many millennia, agriculture was the soil on which all human achievements grew, whether we are talking about trade or navigation, the accumulation of scientific knowledge or the creation of masterpieces of art, the emergence of new cultures or changes in socio-economic formations.

However, emphasizing the deep progressiveness of the agricultural economy in comparison with the economy of appropriating societies, it is necessary to immediately point out the historical limitations, the narrowness of the framework that this economy creates for the development of productive forces and changes in people's living conditions.

Despite the undeniable progress of productive forces throughout the existence of all agrarian societies, their material and technical base remains extremely poorly developed. Improving the tools of production and improving agriculture somewhat increased the productivity of agricultural labor, but they did not relieve agriculture of its strong dependence on natural conditions - and in medieval Europe it also suffered from drought, as in Ancient Egypt in the years when the waters of the Nile were too low. The existence of separate centers of trade and trade routes was not able to break the closed, isolated life of the bulk of the population in conditions of almost exclusively subsistence farming. Life, housing, and the entire way of life of the vast majority of the settlement changed very little. Hard work and a half-starved existence were the main features of the farmer’s lifestyle in Ancient India, the Ancient World, and feudal Europe. In none of the agrarian societies were there prerequisites for changing the conditions of demographic equilibrium, and if by some miracle it had been possible to change some living conditions regardless of general socio-economic conditions and thus affect the birth rate or mortality rate, causing accelerated population growth, then it would have been impossible would coordinate this faster growth with the capabilities of the agricultural economy, its corresponding social institutions, etc.

The “agrarian” type of demographic balance also corresponded to a system of cultural regulators that ensured the maintenance of this balance. Compared to the demographic mechanism of the times of the archetype, these regulators were much more “subtle”, more perfect. But from the standpoint of higher forms of the demographic mechanism, they were very crude and primitive and could not be otherwise, since the possibilities for their development were limited by the relative underdevelopment of all social relations characteristic of agrarian societies. This underdevelopment is a natural consequence of the low level of development of the productive forces and the entire associated way of life of people. Of course, one cannot put on the same level the level of development of social relations with all pre-capitalist methods of production based on exploitation, which, as is known, are “progressive eras of economic social formation”, steps on the path of historical movement from lower to higher. But despite all the – often very important – differences, pre-bourgeois social organisms are characterized by significant common features that predetermine a largely similar position of the individual in society, an equally narrow framework for the development of the human personality.

All pre-bourgeois societies are “traditional”, that is, those in which people’s behavior, their relationships with each other, their entire lives are regulated by a tradition accepted on faith and not requiring rational interpretation, focused on repeating unchanging patterns inherited from time immemorial. Reproduction of pre-determined relationships between an individual and a team, the predetermination of his relationships to working conditions, his fellow tribesmen, etc. - not a secondary feature, but, as K. Marx wrote, the basis for the development of all societies in which land ownership and agriculture form the basis of the economic system. The immaturity of the individual person is one of the most important features of such societies. In them, a person appears as dependent, belonging to a larger whole; he is isolated as an individual only as a result of the historical process. But until such separation occurs, in the most diverse areas of his life a person behaves in accordance with petrified rules, with a certain scheme that does not provide for his personal expression of will, his free choice, or rational understanding of his actions. All the questions that now every adult decides for himself: how to earn his own bread, where to live, how to dress, with whom and when to marry, etc., not so long ago, everywhere in the world, very strictly resolved for the individual by tradition , custom, parents, sovereign, etc. By imposing on the human mind, they subordinated man to external circumstances, instead of elevating him to the position of master of these circumstances, and turned a self-developing social state into an unchangeable fate predetermined by nature.

Thus, on the one hand, throughout the entire period of dominance of the agrarian economy, the conditions of demographic equilibrium, those objective requirements for the process of population reproduction that stemmed from the socio-economic characteristics of the functioning of agrarian societies, remained largely unchanged. On the other hand, the socio-cultural mechanism by which an individual’s behavior was brought into line with objective social needs remained largely the same. This mechanism regulated the behavior of people in all spheres of their lives, and the area of ​​population reproduction was no exception. The demographic mechanism was part of the entire “traditional” mechanism that regulated the behavior of each individual person; therefore, it was also “traditional”. This gives grounds to call “traditional” the type of population reproduction that is characterized by an “agrarian” type of demographic balance (in contrast to its “gathering” type in pre-Neolithic times) and a “traditional” demographic mechanism. There is, however, some inconsistency in such terminology, since, from the point of view of the principle of operation, the demographic mechanism inherent in the archetype is also traditional. This inconsistency may be resolved when the differences between the archetype and the traditional type of population reproduction are better explored.

Narrowed population reproduction

Narrowed reproduction means that there are not enough children born to quantitatively replace the parent generation. A sad example in this regard is demonstrated by Russia, where the demographic crisis began and continues today: the mortality rate in the country as a whole has exceeded the birth rate. Since the beginning of the 90s, every year the number of deaths exceeds the number of births by more than 100 thousand, or 10 percent. Natural population decline was observed in 68 of the 89 regions of Russia, where 80 percent of the population lives. In other words, the population of Russia is dying out.

Reduced reproduction leads to many negative consequences.

Narrowed reproduction is interesting because the production process is resumed on a reduced scale. Such reproduction is typical for countries in a deep and prolonged socio-economic crisis, in cases of sudden and rapid destruction of a single economic space, when reproductive ties are broken. Examples include post-war Germany and Greece.

There are simple, expanded and narrowed reproduction.

Depopulation is a decrease in the absolute population of a country or territory, or narrowed reproduction, in which the number of subsequent generations is smaller than previous ones.

There are simple and expanded reproduction of production factors and products. As a result, with the same productivity of these factors, the value of the produced product does not decrease (otherwise narrowed reproduction would take place) and does not increase. In conditions of expanded reproduction, an increase in the volume of factors of production, other things being equal, leads to an increase in production and the volume of the product produced. On the scale of the entire society, the expanded reproduction of gross domestic product (GDP) requires the use of part of the GDP reproduced in the previous period for accumulation.

The simple reproduction of neutrons, which occurs in a member in a steady state at zero reactivity, when its value is positive, turns into expanded, and when negative, into narrowed reproduction.

The center of demographic policy should be measures to overcome the demographic crisis, since opportunities to prevent or mitigate it have been missed. The strategic goal should be to maintain or achieve at least simple population replacement. That is, it is necessary to prevent the transition to narrowed reproduction where it is expanded, and to return to simple reproduction where it has become narrowed.

Demographic types of population reproduction

The population can increase as a result of natural or mechanical population movement. The natural movement of the population is characterized by indicators of fertility, mortality, marriage and divorce rates. Birth and death rates are measured in ppm.

Fertility is the number of people born per year per 1000 population. Mortality is the number of people dying per year per 1000 population. The difference between the birth rate and death rate forms the natural increase or natural decrease in the country's population. Depopulation is a natural population decline. Marriage rate is the frequency of marriage. Usually measured by the number of registered marriages per year per 1000 inhabitants or the number of people married per year per 1000 unmarried people of marriageable age. The result of marriage is the number of married people. Divorce rate is the frequency of marriage dissolution. Measured by the number of divorces per 1,000 inhabitants per year or per 1,000 existing married couples.

Natural population movement is an integral part of the process of population reproduction - the constant renewal of people. At its core, population reproduction is a biological process. But as historical development progressed in human society, a gradual change in the types of population reproduction was observed. The theory that explains the change in types of reproduction depending on the socio-economic development of the country is called the theory of demographic transition (demographic revolutions). The transition from one type of reproduction to another is called a demographic revolution. We need knowledge of historical types of reproduction and patterns of demographic transition in order to understand the demographic processes taking place in Russia. Global patterns of demographic development are manifested in each country of the world.

The most ancient type of reproduction is archaic (archetype). The economic basis of ancient society was the appropriative economy (hunting and gathering). At the same time, man only used the food resources of the natural landscape. The population in a certain territory was limited by natural resources. The population could exist for a long time if the population remained the same. The archetype is characterized by high fertility and high mortality (40-45 ppm). The natural increase was extremely insignificant. In fact, the number of people increased only as a result of the settlement of new territories.

The archaic type of reproduction was replaced by the traditional one. The transition was associated with the emergence and spread of a productive (agricultural) economy. Archaeologists called it the Neolithic Revolution, the first economic revolution in human history. The economic basis for the development of society has improved, a transition to settled life is taking place, in addition, food and living conditions have improved (permanent settlements have appeared). As a result, the mortality rate dropped to 30-35 ppm, the birth rate remained at the same level at 40-45 ppm. Natural population growth appeared, but it was also insignificant. Low growth was facilitated by low life expectancy (25-35 years) and high infant mortality (mortality of children under 1 year of age - 200-300 ppm).

The traditional type of reproduction has been replaced by a modern one. The transition began in the 17th century. in Western Europe due to industrialization and urbanization of society. At the same time, the nutrition and living conditions of people have sharply improved, and the incidence of infectious diseases has decreased. As a result, life expectancy has increased and infant mortality has decreased. A rapid decrease in mortality while maintaining high birth rates leads to a sharp increase in natural increase at the initial stage of the demographic transition. This period, which is characterized by a sharp increase in population growth rates, is called the “demographic explosion.” After some time, following the decrease in mortality, the birth rate also decreased.

The following reasons for the decline in fertility can be identified:

Reducing child mortality (resulting in the elimination of the need to have “spare children”);
- organization of social security (i.e., the state takes care of the elderly, and children are no longer the only breadwinners in old age);
- the collapse of the old patriarchal family (which was a reproduction unit) and the emergence of small families, where raising a large number of children is difficult;
- the emancipation of women and the emergence of a new system of values, the main of which are now located “outside the home”;
- increasing the level of education and expanding the range of interests of people;
- increased costs for raising and educating children (if in an agrarian economy children from an early age “pay for themselves” by working on the land, now now you only need to “invest” money in them for up to 20 years);
- urbanization is a kind of integral indicator of changes in conditions and lifestyle: in urbanized areas (and especially in large cities) all of the above factors are more powerful.

Thus, the modern type of reproduction is characterized by low birth and death rates (about 10 ppm) and, as a consequence, low natural increase or natural loss. A characteristic feature of the modern type of reproduction is the regulation of the number of children in the family.

At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia was close to the traditional type of population reproduction. The birth rate was about 45 ppm, the average life expectancy was about 35 years. Over the next decades, there was a demographic transition that began in the northwestern and central provinces, the most industrialized and urbanized. The transition to a modern type of reproduction was complicated by several demographic crises - periods with negative natural growth.

Within Russia, there are significant differences in the demographic situation associated with differences in the national and gender-age composition in the regions of the country.

There are 4 types of regions based on demographic situation:

The first type is national autonomies in the south of the country. This type includes the republics of the North Caucasus, Kalmykia, Tyva, Altai, and Buryat Autonomous Okrug. The indigenous population of these regions is at the final stage of transition from the traditional type of reproduction to the modern one. Accordingly, here, with low mortality (7-9 ppm), there is a fairly high birth rate (15-20 ppm) and a noticeable natural increase. The age structure of the population is “young”, with the highest proportion of children in Russia.

The second type is the most urbanized regions of the country. These are Moscow, St. Petersburg, Moscow region and some other areas. Here the birth rate is minimal (6-8 ppm), mortality is above average (15-17 ppm), natural decline is higher than average (9-10 ppm). The age structure of the population is similar to the average Russian one, but the population has “advanced” the demographic transition to the greatest extent, which is why the existing differences from others are associated. In particular, it is in these regions that the minimum proportion of children in the population is observed.

The third type is Russian regions with a “young” age structure of the population, which was formed as a result of the influx of population, mainly young people, over the previous several decades. This type includes the regions of the European North, as well as most regions of the Asian part of Russia. In these regions, there is a reduced birth rate (7-10 ppm), but low mortality (9-11 ppm). As a result, the increase is about zero. Regions of this type are distinguished by the maximum share of the working-age population and the minimum share of elderly people.

The fourth type is Russian regions with an “old” age structure of the population, which was formed as a result of the migration outflow of the population over several decades. Most regions of the European part of Russia belong to this type (except for regions included in other groups). Here the average birth rate (9-10 ppm), but the highest mortality (18-22 ppm). Regions of this type are characterized by maximum natural population decline (10-13 ppm) and the maximum proportion of elderly people.

Population reproduction- constant renewal of the population as a result of the processes of fertility and mortality, and for certain regions - migration. In a narrower sense, it is the renewal of generations of people as a result of births and deaths. A population is characterized by its size and structure. Changes in the population are determined by the appearance of some people, the departure of others, the transition from one structural part of the population to another, which lead to the fact that the population continues to exist, maintaining or changing its numbers and structure.

Population reproduction mode- a set of parameters that determine the course of the population reproduction process.

The population of a limited territory is part of the population of a larger territory, with other parts of which an exchange of population can occur. Excluding this exchange, one speaks of closed population, the total number of which can only change through births and deaths. In this case, those born immediately find themselves part of some of the units. For an extremely aggregated population, there is its total number as a characteristic of its condition, birth and death. The parameters that determine its reproduction are the general birth and death rates.

With a more detailed study of the population, represented by a number of structural units, the progress of its reproduction is determined by the parameters of each unit. Thus, fertility and mortality are differentiated by divisions. In addition, parameters are discovered that determine the exchange of population between these units. On the one hand, there are divisions, exchange between which is impossible. These are groups by gender, place and date of birth, eye color, genetic characteristics, etc.

On the other hand, there are divisions in which the transition from one to another is mandatory and inevitable. These are age groups.

Most often isolated two types of reproduction. Type I- simple reproduction, if during the change of generations the population does not increase, or narrowed, when more people die than are born. Type II- expanded reproduction, when the number of the next generation is greater than the previous one. First type of population reproduction characterized by low rates of birth rate, death rate, and natural increase. It is typical for European countries (including Russia), North America, Australia and Oceania. In a number of countries, simple reproduction is maintained, for which it is necessary that half of all families have 2 children, and half - 3 (2 children, as it were, replace parents, and the third “covers the loss” from accidents, illnesses, “compensates” for the lack of offspring for the childless). Second type of population reproduction characterized by high and very high fertility and natural increase rates and relatively low mortality rates. This type is most characteristic of developing countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The problem for these countries is the need to reduce the birth rate and overcome the demographic explosion through the implementation of family planning programs.

67. The concept of the regime of natural reproduction of the population, its indicators.

Population reproduction is the constant renewal of the size and structure of the population in the process of changing generations of people through births and deaths. The set of parameters that determine this process is called the population reproduction regime. The parameters that determine population reproduction are fertility and mortality.

Typically, population reproduction is considered most often in relation to the female sex. The choice of the female population: firstly, the reproductive period of women is shorter than that of men. Secondly, the basic parameters of female reproduction (the number of children born to a woman, her age at their birth, etc.) are much more accessible than similar characteristics for men, especially with regard to out-of-wedlock births. Indicators: gross population reproduction rate - the number of girls that on average each woman will give birth to over the entire reproductive period. When calculating the gross coefficient, it is assumed that there is no mortality among women until the end of their reproductive years (equal to the total fertility rate multiplied by this share of girls among newborns). An indicator that also takes into account mortality is the net population reproduction rate. Otherwise it is called the net population replacement rate. It is equal to the average number of girls born to a woman in her lifetime and surviving to the end of her reproductive period, given the birth and death rates.

Population geography studies the size, structure and distribution of the population, considered in the process of social reproduction and interaction with the natural environment. Recently, two trends have been observed in population geography. The first is geodemographic, which studies the size and structure of the population, the main demographic indicators (mortality, birth rate, average life expectancy) and population reproduction, the demographic situation and demographic policy in the world, individual regions and countries. The second is the actual geographical one, which studies the general geographical picture of the distribution of population in the world, individual regions and countries, and in particular the geography of settlement and populated areas. In this direction, geourbanism has received the greatest development.

Throughout human history, the population has grown very slowly. The acceleration of population growth occurred during the period of modern history, especially in the 20th century. Currently, the annual population growth is about 90 million people. At the end of the 90s. The world population was 6 billion people. But population growth is uneven in different regions of the world. This is explained by the different nature of population reproduction.

Population reproduction is understood as the totality of the processes of fertility, mortality and natural increase, which ensure the continuous renewal and change of human generations. Reproduction is influenced by the socio-economic conditions of people's lives, relationships between people and family relationships.

Currently, there are two types of reproduction. The first type is characterized by relatively low rates of fertility, mortality and natural increase. This type is typical for economically developed countries, where natural population growth is either very low, or natural population decline predominates. Demographers call this phenomenon depopulation (demographic crisis). The second type of reproduction is characterized by high rates of fertility and natural population growth. This type is typical for developing countries, where the achievement of independence led to a sharp reduction in mortality, while the birth rate remained at the same level.

At the end of the 20th century. The highest rates of fertility and natural increase were observed in Kenya, where the birth rate was 54 people per thousand, and the natural increase was 44 people. This phenomenon of rapid population growth in countries of the second type of reproduction is called a demographic explosion. Currently, such countries account for more than 3/4 of the world's population. The absolute annual increase is 85 million people, i.e. developing countries are already and will continue to have a decisive impact on the size and reproduction of the world's population. Under these conditions, most countries seek to manage population reproduction by pursuing demographic policies. Demographic policy is a system of administrative, economic, propaganda and other measures through which the state influences the natural movement of the population in the directions it desires.

In countries of the first type of reproduction, demographic policy is aimed at increasing the birth rate and natural increase (Western European countries, Russia, etc.); in countries of the second type of reproduction - to reduce the birth rate and natural increase (India, China, etc.).

An important scientific basis for demographic policy is the theory of demographic transition, which explains the sequence of changes in demographic processes. The scheme of such a transition includes four successive stages. The first stage covered almost the entire history of mankind. It is characterized by high birth and death rates and, accordingly, very low natural growth. The second stage is characterized by a sharp reduction in mortality while maintaining the traditionally high birth rate. The third stage is characterized by maintaining low mortality rates, and the birth rate begins to decline, but slightly exceeds the death rate, ensuring moderate expanded reproduction and population growth. When moving to the fourth stage, the birth and death rates coincide. This means a transition to population stabilization.

Recently, in science and practice, indicators characterizing the quality of the population are becoming increasingly important. This is a complex concept that takes into account economic (employment, income, caloric intake), social (level of health care, safety of citizens, development of democratic institutions), cultural (level of literacy, provision of cultural institutions, printed materials), environmental (state of the environment) and other conditions people's lives.

One of the most important general indicators of the health status of a nation is the average life expectancy. At the end of the 20th century. the global average was 66 years (63 for men and 68 for women). Another important indicator of the quality of life of the population is the level of literacy.

This lesson “Number and reproduction of population” is the first in the section “Geography of the world’s population.” The lesson provides information about the main indicators and characteristics of the population. From the lesson you will understand how the population can be regulated, which countries are pursuing demographic policies, and how the population of our planet has changed.

Topic: Geography of the world population

Lesson: Population size and reproduction

There is a separate direction in geographical science -population geography- This is one of the main branches of economic and social geography.

The main way to determine the population size for a certain period of time is to conduct a population census.
Population census- a unified process of collecting, summarizing, analyzing and publishing demographic, economic and social data of the population, relating at a certain time to all persons in the country or a clearly limited part of it. Upon completion of the population census, the collected data is processed and published. Population accounting arose in ancient times in connection with the tax and military activities of states and the tasks of their administrative structure. Even in the ancient Indian laws of Manu, rulers were ordered to take into account the inhabitants in order to find out their strength and determine taxes. In Egypt, population records were carried out starting from the era of the Old Kingdom (2800 - 2250 BC). There is evidence that population records were kept in Ancient China and Ancient Japan. The population census is usually carried out every 5 - 10 years.

The world's population has been constantly growing. The greatest population growth was observed in the 20th century. Currently, the world population exceeds 7 billion people.

Countries in the world with the largest populations

	A country	Population	date	% of the world's population	Source
		November 2012
				2. Federal portal Russian Education (). 4. Official information portal of the Unified State Exam ().