Lecture 5. The essence of interregional connections and interregional integration

The essence and forms of interregional connections

The development of the regional complex does not occur in isolation, but in connection and interdependence with other regions and the outside world. Interregional economic relations represent a system of economic relations and interests of regions developing in the process of functioning of social production, determined by the division of social labor and specialization of production, the location of productive forces and natural and geographical conditions. Interregional connections are presented at the following levels:

Individual enterprises, organizations, firms, individual citizens carrying out externally regional socio-economic operations;

Industrial complexes, industries, municipal territorial entities (cities, districts);

Regions.

Forms of interregional economic relations. The main forms of interregional economic relations in market conditions are material exchange of labor results, mutually beneficial performance of work and services by regions, joint implementation of production and non-production work, the development of interregional tourism, the implementation of the same regional tax, demographic and pricing policies.

Thanks to interregional economic relations, systems of interacting regions are formed, and the functioning of the national and world economy is carried out. The weakening of interregional economic ties does not allow taking advantage of the mutual complementarity of the regional economy and creates a threat to the economic integrity of the state.

Historical path of interregional cooperation. Began in the late 1980s. the trend of territorial disintegration of the Russian economy has led to a reduction and disintegration of previous economic ties between regions and former republics of the USSR, which are not compensated by foreign trade.

Normal commodity exchange was replaced by barter, and the intensity of interregional exchange for the main types of goods decreased. The growth of transport tariffs made the established economic ties of the outlying regions unprofitable, creating the danger of their isolation from the economic core of Russia.

The sharp transition to the liberalization of foreign trade led to the replacement of mutual exchange between regions with export-import operations, to a sharp reduction in interregional ties, deformation of the sectoral and territorial structure, a sharp drop in production in most sectors of the manufacturing industry and in agriculture, an increase in the differentiation of incomes of the population, growth unemployment, which, in turn, led to changes in the structure and intensity of interregional economic turnover, as well as in the socio-economic situation of individual regions.

Currently, the regions of Russia are given the right to independently solve economic problems and establish interregional and foreign economic relations. Interregional economic relations should involve mutually beneficial interregional exchange of products, which is regulated by agreements between the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, cities, and individual enterprises:

Government regulation plays an important role in the development of interregional exchange in modern transitional conditions. But since enterprises have become the main subjects of interregional economic relations, the functions of state federal and regional government bodies are limited mainly to the creation of favorable conditions for the development of interregional interactions.

Reforms carried out in the regions must correspond to national interests and not cause damage to other regions, which is not always done. Using the rights of free economic development, regions develop their own models of economic behavior: regions with a developed agricultural sector that meets domestic needs for agricultural products set high purchase prices for products, reduce interregional economic ties and transfer them to a barter basis in order to curb the decline in consumption and growth food prices; regions with rich natural resources enter the world market independently; Regions with a predominance of extractive industries and underdeveloped agriculture are seeking to organize barter with both industrial and agricultural states and regions in order to mitigate the social consequences of the crisis.

The socio-economic crisis in Russia has led to growing contradictions in relations between regions, which are manifested in the following: in regions with undeveloped economies, which are closed systems, regional markets are being formed that serve enterprises and the population of only this region. In regions with developed industry and an open economy, preference is given to supplying products not to the Russian domestic market, but abroad, which is economically more profitable.

The process of strengthening within the regional market lies in the desire of the regions to establish within their borders the production of products to meet the daily needs of the population and the sustainable operation of enterprises.

However, the capacity and structure of the regional market are determined not only by the products produced in a given region, but also by products purchased in other regions and abroad. Therefore, regional markets cannot be considered separately from the all-Russian market and foreign economic relations. The development of exchange and horizontal connections between regions is the basis for the formation of territorial markets.

In modern conditions, the role of the foreign economic factor in the development of the economy of the country as a whole and of individual regions is increasing, foreign economic activity is becoming increasingly open. The number of participants in foreign economic relations is noticeably expanding, since the subjects of the Russian Federation, individual enterprises and companies have received the right to engage in foreign economic activity.

However, the liberalization of foreign trade had a negative impact on interregional economic relations and the main indicators of economic development of Russian regions, which led to the reorientation of regions towards trade with foreign countries, an increase in export and import volumes while the volume of domestic production fell, the displacement of domestic producers from the domestic market by imports, the predominance in Russian exports of raw materials, and in imports of consumer goods and, ultimately, to the suppression of interregional supplies by foreign trade.

The rapid growth of transport tariffs compared to the prices of transported products, the reduction in transport volumes, production volumes and the overall capacity of commodity markets, the loss of competitiveness of many industries in the domestic market led to an accelerated decline in interregional exchange, and the decline in interregional exchange occurred faster than the decline in production.

Interregional integration and its institutions

It is necessary to use the wide opportunities available in the regions for the further development of interregional ties and the comprehensive expansion of foreign economic relations on the basis of treaties and agreements; establish direct contacts with major financial institutions in order to attract potential investors to the regions; look for partners in the production of basic goods; advance to regional, Russian and international markets for the products of regional enterprises.

Improving interregional economic ties presupposes the widespread use of new organizational forms of economic cooperation or interregional integration.

Interregional integration is territorial integration of a certain scale and within a certain spatiotemporal framework. Developed interregional integration forms the foundation of a single economic space of the country (which, in turn, forms the basis of the unity of the state), where the federal center and regions interact on equal terms and with mutual benefit; producers of goods and services and the population.

Among the economic, political and cultural aspects of integration interregional processes, economic integration is of particular importance. The most important form of interregional cooperation is the interaction of enterprises and organizations from different regions of the country.

The creation of structures and institutions that support various forms of integration processes can be carried out in various forms: from the formation of various associative organizations (“soft” form of interregional integration) to the creation in macroregions of state structures and interregional executive and legislative bodies (“hard” form). “Hard” forms and institutions of interregional integration in their completed form can lead to changes in the Constitution of the Russian Federation and to a fundamental change in the administrative-territorial division of the country.

In fact, we can talk about a new model of the federal state structure of Russia, into which large economic regions are introduced as new essential elements (other options are “federal districts”, “macroregions”, “governorships”, etc.) with all the attributes state entities (legislative, executive, judicial powers, their own constitution, anthem, flag, citizenship, etc.).

In a more weakened form, “hard” institutions of interregional integration can be formed in macroregions in the form of state institutions of executive power (for example, like the former economic councils). This could be a kind of interregional “government” with a fairly wide range of powers delegated both from the federal level and from the level of the constituent entities of the Federation included in a given macroregion.

In principle, the emergence of such forms and institutions does not contradict the current Constitution of the Russian Federation, which speaks of the possibility of mutual delegation of powers of executive authorities from top to bottom and from bottom to top. By mutual agreement, the federal center and the subjects of the Federation can agree that this delegation can be assigned to the intermediate - interregional - level.

It's all about the nature of these powers and the tasks of the new interregional structures. Since such institutional design of interregional integration does not require the creation of legislative and judicial authorities, the question of whether the territory covered by the sphere of governance of such interregional “governments” is a subject of the Federation and what to do with the existing subjects of the Federation located on this territory is removed: The absence of the need to change the federal structure of the state in this case is an absolute advantage of this approach compared to the maximalist version of “hard” integration.

If we accept that the extreme version of “soft” integration institutions can be associative associations working on a voluntary basis and playing a purely informational or propaganda role in regulating the integration processes of several subjects of the Federation, then all other forms and institutions will occupy an intermediate position between these extreme boundaries ( for example, these include forms of economic integration of commodity producers and areas of market infrastructure).

The modern version of reforming the country's government system can be classified as intermediate. So far, the main activity of modern governors general is the implementation of “interregional examination” of federal laws. What option the further development of interregional integration will take remains a question.

Regional and global integration

Developing on two levels - global And regional, The integration process is characterized, on the one hand, by the increasing internationalization of economic life, and on the other, by the economic rapprochement of countries on a regional basis. Regional integration, growing on the basis of the internationalization of production and capital, at the same time expresses a certain divergence in the world market system, i.e. a parallel trend developing alongside a more global one. It represents, if not a denial of the global nature of the world market, then to a certain extent an attempt to close it within the framework of a group of developed leading states. We are talking about a qualitative shift, caused both by the growing economic needs of the economic rapprochement of different countries, and by the all-encompassing nature of the deepening contradictions within the framework of the world capitalist system. Modern countries are striving to find a way out of these contradictions, as well as to solve problems dictated by the acceleration of the internationalization of national economic complexes, through the utmost deepening of regional economic integration.

Within the framework of the regional complex, not only the sphere of circulation is internationalized and integrated, but also the central phase of the circulation of capital, i.e. production itself, the technological process of creating a product. As a result, the circulation of aggregate national capitals as a whole becomes intertwined. Here lies the main line separating integration from pre-integration forms of internationalization of economic life. We also note that integration as an economic phenomenon is still of a rather general nature, since nowhere in the world has a process of complete integration occurred, ending with the unification and loss of independence of the participants in the association. Therefore, integration is it's a process of unification , but not yet the unification of individual parts into a single whole. All this, however, is directly related to the most developed form of integration - the European Union.

Thus, international economic integration (IEI) - this is a steadily ongoing process of bringing together a number of states on the path to unification - from the proclamation of integration to the closest cooperation in the field of economics, finance, attracting labor, the creation of supranational bodies of economic and political power, which form a common basis for the domestic and foreign economic policies of the integrating states.

Extensive joint activities of the integration group and the created mechanisms of power lead to the development of uniform rules for the activities of various subjects of economic, legal, cultural, political, military and other activities in the direction of integration. This activity strengthens cooperation and regulation of economic, social, and in some cases, political issues in accordance with the tasks that were officially set by treaties and agreements at different stages of the integration development of countries.

Principles, types and forms of integration

The experience of many integration associations of the 20th century. shows that they are formed mainly on two basic principles. One principle is the powerful proactive role of the state (a classic example is the creation and development of the European Union); another principle is the predominant role of large private enterprise, which literally forces the state to take the path of integration rapprochement with one or another group of countries (examples: the Treaty between the United States, Canada and Mexico, NAFTA).

In the first case, it develops institutional type of integration , in the second - private-corporate. The global process of economic integration is likely to have sour cream character , since it is pushed, on the one hand, by developed countries and their governments, on the other hand, by powerful TNCs and TNB, on the third hand, by large and influential international financial, economic and financial organizations and institutions (WTO, WB, IMF), as well as structures UN.

CMEA should also be classified as an institutional type of integration, since it was organized exclusively at the interstate level, albeit with the aim of solving primarily the economic problems of Eastern European countries.

The role of the state factor is also significant in the formation of various regional integration groups in areas of developing countries, which is obviously due to the fact that large businesses in developing countries are still being formed and do not have sufficient influence to become the leading force for “pushing” integration associations and the corresponding interstate agreements.

By scale, integration associations are divided into:

• 1) bilateral - least common in practice (for example, the integration association of Australia and New Zealand operating on the basis of an agreement);
• 2) multilateral - most common in regional integration;
• 3) continental - Latin American Economic Integration (LEI), Organization of African Unity (OLE).

Currently, both types of integration are developing dynamically - both their global and regional forms. Integration processes cover Europe, North America, vast areas of the Indian-Pacific basin, Latin America, Africa, and the Arab countries zone. Each regional integration group has its own characteristics and mechanisms of formation and functioning. Some of them show their vitality, and the participating countries benefit from their peoples; others exist only on a formal basis, although sometimes the governments of these countries enter into important treaties and agreements.

International regional organizations operating in Europe:

• o EU;
• oEACT.

Regional organizations active in Europe:

• o Nordic Council (Scandinavian countries);
• o Council of the Baltic Sea States.

Regional associations of Central and Eastern Europe and Asia:

• o CIS;
• o Euro-Asian Free Trade Agreement; transformed into the EurAsEC in 2005;
• o Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC);
• o Organization of Central Asian Countries;
• o Baltic Free Trade Area;
• o Russian-Belarusian Economic Union (transformed in 1997 into the Union of Belarus and Russia);
• o Kazakh-Kyrgyz-Uzbek free trade agreement;
• o Organization of Cooperation between Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan and Moldova (GUAM);
• o Agreement on the Joint Economic Space of the CIS (2004);
• o Shanghai Cooperation Organization (IIIOC, 2005);
• o Customs Union of Russia, Kazakhstan and Belarus (2009).

Interregional integration- the process of creating a new, more general supersystem, which is formed on the basis of combining a number of subsystems (regions of one or several states) interacting with each other in the socio-economic, political and other spheres. At the same time, some common functions are combined, common tasks are solved, a strategy and joint development programs are developed, which ultimately leads to a complete or partial organizational merger into a single integrated region.

Thus, complete interregional integration implies the creation of a new federal subject.

An integrated region (the result of the process of interregional integration) is a new larger subject of the federation, formed through a complete or partial organizational merger of smaller subjects in order to obtain a synergistic effect, optimize management and implement more effective socio-economic policies in the federation.

Let's give the main features of integration of each type.

1. Types of integration by territory and institutions:

Macroeconomic (or regional) integration is the process of economic and political unification of countries based on the development of deep, stable relationships and division of labor between individual national economies. It is characterized by the merging of national markets for goods, services, capital and labor of various states, the formation of an integral market space with a single financial and monetary system, a single, basically, legal system, the creation of supranational governing bodies, etc.

Mesoeconomic (or interregional) integration is the process of creating a new higher system, which is formed on the basis of the unification of a number of subsystems (regions of one or several states) interacting with each other in socio-economic, political and other spheres. At the same time, some common functions are combined, common tasks are solved, a strategy and joint development programs are developed, which ultimately leads to a complete or partial organizational merger into a single integrated region.

Microeconomic (or local) integration is the process of mergers and acquisitions at the level of enterprises or industrial sectors of one region or state as a whole. Contains mainly the economic component of integration. The main reasons for microeconomic integration can be called: the desire to obtain and enhance synergies and economies of scale, reduce transaction costs, etc.

2. By sources of initiation:

Integration “from above” (authoritarian or traditional model) - implies an authoritative decision at the level of government circles, determined by such highest state interests as geopolitical strategy, ensuring national security, building a “vertical of power”, solving ethnic, social and other problems.

Integration “from below” (market model) is the official consolidation of the creation of a certain unity (subject of the federation, union, etc.), which arose at a certain stage of the development of society due to the combination of a number of prerequisites of a political, economic and socio-cultural nature.

3. Types of integration depending on the application area:

- Economic- implies the formation of a single economic space, eliminating restrictions on the free movement of goods, capital, services and labor, consolidation of production and a well-thought-out policy for the location of production facilities; creating a favorable investment climate, etc.

Political is an objective process that allows us to achieve mutually beneficial results with lower costs for all participating entities. It requires the formation of formal or informal institutions for making joint decisions. It also presupposes a high level of awareness among political units of common interests and values, and the presence of stable mutual expectations. This process can take place at local, national and international levels.

Social - involves bringing together, overcoming disunity, as well as changing the structure of society due to the unfolding processes of integration. Social integration consolidates the capital of the public, spirituality, tolerance, communication, reduces social tension, etc. This allows for a coordinated policy in the field of education, health, culture, and the creation of the necessary system of measures to protect human rights and social protection of the population.

Cultural - involves the creation of a single cultural space, the expansion of international and interethnic cultural ties, the creation of new mechanisms of socialization, inculturation and self-realization of the individual. Personal, emotional and aesthetic coherence between cultural meanings is enhanced. It is possible to create unified library, archive, museum collections, etc.

4. By degree of integration:

Integration on the principles of associations presupposes the preservation of the economic and political autonomy of counterparties. At the same time, the counterparty business entity is not subject to the control influence of supranational or supraregional government institutions. Here such forms of cooperation as associations, alliances and strategic alliances arise.

Integration on the principles of agglomerations - an association is formed as a result of partial or complete centralization of the budgets of integration entities, the formation of supranational or supraregional government institutions that pursue a coordinated policy in all areas of activity of business entities-contractors (up to a complete merger).

5. According to the features of manifestation in multi-component societies:

Heterogeneous - means that the boundaries dividing societies into segments become more transparent (but do not disappear) when the boundaries of social unity are established. The emerging consensus between these segments of society is used to achieve certain goals (most often this is protection from external enemies). Such agreements and treaties, accompanied by strengthening political, economic and socio-cultural ties, carry the potential of federalism. A distinctive feature of heterogeneous integration is the constant production of consensus, which is associated with a gradual increase in the differentiation of interests of various segments of society.

Autonomous is the process of unity within an autonomous unit (implying the presence of a homogeneous society). Unlike heterogeneous integration, here the potential for conflict in the distribution of power within the integrated whole is less aggressive, therefore this association is more stable and stable.

The main features of interregional integration based on the principle of agglomeration, continuing the research of the processes of regional and interregional integration of Russian scientists (O. Butorina, M. Stezhneva, etc.), can be called the following:

1. The unification of regions into an integrated region gives rise to a new quality that would be impossible (or immeasurably difficult) to obtain on an individual basis. Integration appears to be a positive-sum game, making it beneficial for both each participant and the group as a whole. A condition for normal integration is considered to be a synergistic effect, i.e. obtaining a force that exceeds the sum of the individual forces.

2. The new association stands out from the rest of the world and in one way or another is isolated from it. Thus, the creation of a customs union involves the elimination of customs barriers between the participating countries and the introduction of a single customs barrier in relation to third countries. The same is true at the regional level. For example, establishing “softer” electricity tariffs throughout the entire integrated region, pursuing a unified policy in relation to other regions and states.

3. Voluntary and partnership nature of the association. A spontaneous increase in the interdependence of regions (for example, due to active interregional trade or the activities of large enterprises and firms), as many researchers believe, cannot be considered integration. Integration is a purely voluntary matter, which the participants in this process undertake consciously. Therefore, the forceful unification of territories cannot be called integration.

4. Interregional integration extends to various areas of both foreign and domestic policies of the participating regions. This distinguishes it from interregional organizations and other forms of interregional cooperation, which usually have only one area of ​​activity. Integration associations always have political and economic components, and also extend their activities to other areas: law, ecology, population migration, science and technology, education.

5. Interregional integration is built on the awareness of its participants of the commonality of their future historical destiny, i.e. here the sense of political community is directed not to the past, but exclusively to the future. General features of historical development are important for integration only in terms of their contemporary results. In addition to this, one more core element is needed - a general idea of ​​the present and future global identity.

6. Interregional integration is defined as unification with supranational (supraregional) governing bodies, i.e. with central authorities enjoying loyalty along with other government structures. We put forward this feature following the followers of the new institutional theory, who attach paramount importance to it.

7. Understanding interregional integration as a manifestation of globalization gives reason to believe that its deepest driving force is not only the desire for security or the solution of ethnic problems, but, mainly, the desire of the participants in the association to get into a better stratum (or jointly form a better stratum) than that , to which they would objectively belong without integration. This means strengthening the positions of each participating region in the areas that are most important for a given stage of stratification or in areas where the region has the greatest opportunities for this.

All this gives reason to believe that only an integrated association based on the principles of agglomeration can be called an integrated region and give the corresponding effect.

Many of these republics, territories, regions and districts are simply not capable of developing rationally and harmoniously in their current capacity in the harsh conditions of the reality of a market economy. Thus, it becomes obvious that new transformations of the administrative-territorial structure of the country in modern conditions of a market economy require the use of a market model, i.e. integration “from below”.

An analysis of modern interregional integration trends in our country allows us to identify, in addition to the state (integration from above), three more driving forces in the process of unification of regions, which allow us to talk about the possibility of integration from below. Their presence also proves the possibility of carrying out an effective and relatively painless process of creating integrated regions on the territory of our state on the principles of democracy and the common good. The main driving forces and their vital interests related to the upcoming integration can be presented as follows:

State

1. Geopolitical interests.

2. Geoeconomic interests.

3. National security and defense.

4. Management optimization.

5. Economic recovery of regions.

6. Ensuring sustainable development of regions.

7. Creation of a single economic space.

8. Reducing social tension.

Subjects of the federation

1. Gaining economic stability and independence.

2. Gaining a certain independence from the policies of the Federal Center.

3. Ensuring foreign economic and political security of the regions.

4. Increasing manageability, strengthening coordination and control, reducing the bureaucracy.

5. Opportunities for implementing large-scale projects.

6. Possibility of more rational and efficient use of all regional resources.

7. Possibility of getting out of a depressed state.

8. Restoration and strengthening of economic ties.

9. Unification of artificially created regions in terms of production chains.

10. The possibility of creating large integration structures in industry, agriculture, education, healthcare, services, etc.

11. Increased competitiveness.

12. Increasing investment attractiveness.

13. Exchange of experience, elimination of regional limitations and conservatism.

Society

1. The possibility of further development of democratic institutions, the implementation of the true principles of democracy.

2. Establishing more friendly relations, strengthening cooperation in cultural, scientific, social, political and other fields.

3. Opportunities for social and cultural integration of the population.

4. Improving the standard of living of the population, creating new jobs, eliminating restrictions on labor migration, etc.

5. Strengthening coordination and control in the field of ecology and environmental protection.

Private sector (business structures)

1. Increasing labor productivity based on a better and more justified division of labor and interregional specialization.

2. Expanding the boundaries of the economic space.

3. Increase in market size.

4. Elimination of restrictions on the movement of goods, services, capital and labor.

5. Savings due to increased scale of activity.

6. Possibility of minimizing transaction costs.

7. Restoration of cooperative ties between enterprises and institutional ties with other organizations.

8. Unification of trade, financial, tax and other rules and regulations.

9. Possibility of creating a unified energy and transport infrastructure.

Equally important is the statement that an effectively integrated region, in order to maximize the use of its full potential, must combine all the signs of economic, political, social and cultural integration.

Thus, if all necessary conditions are met, the probability of creating an effectively integrated region is very high. An effectively integrated region has the opportunity to make maximum use of all its existing potential for self-development and the development of the entire state as a whole. However, the integration process must be as balanced and thoughtful as possible, taking into account all kinds of risks, the use of international experience and the regions’ own specifics.

As part of interregional integration, various structures and institutions, which support various forms of integration processes. “Soft” form (formation of associations) and “hard” integration - the creation of interregional structures and interregional joint initiative organizations. Rigid forms and institutions in the final stage can lead to changes in the administrative-territorial division of the country. We can talk about the formation of a new model of federal government, a confederal state administration based on federal districts at the macro level.

An extreme version of “soft” integration are associations, associations that play an informational and propaganda role in several constituent entities of the Russian Federation (“Siberian Agreement”, “Renaissance of the Urals”, “Big Volga”, etc.). The modern version of interregional integration is a mixture of “hard” and “soft” forms, expressed in the creation of coordination bodies. There are individual examples of such interaction - the “Perm Project”.

The most significant forms of interregional integration that arose in the early 90s, as a reaction to the inaction of regional authorities in the field of regional policy, are interregional associations for economic interaction.

According to the Federal Law of December 17, 1999 “On the general principles of organization and activities of associations of economic interaction of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation”: The Association of Economic Cooperation (AEV) of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation is a non-profit organization, the founders of which are government bodies of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and which is created on a voluntary basis in for the purposes of interregional integration and socio-economic development of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

They began to form in 1991, and in 1992 the center of gravity of the associations shifted to the economic sphere.

Main reasons for education:

Destruction of the unified national economic complex of the former Soviet Union;

The need to develop new relationships between federal, regional and local levels of government;

The need to establish economic ties, information exchange between territories, coordination of actions, and others.

Associations clearly represent the specifics of the regional economy and the areas’ needs for investment. This gives them the opportunity to find counter flows of free funds both within the region and outside it. Association members mobilize financial resources to support priority territorial development programs. In many cases, the actions of associations are more effective than the actions of individual subjects of the Russian Federation.

The main goals and objectives of associations are:

1. providing the necessary conditions for effective interaction between the constituent entities of the Russian Federation in matters of socio-economic development based on the combination of material, financial and intellectual resources;

2. preparation of proposals on issues of rational use of the economic potential of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation;

3. optimal placement of productive forces;

4. development of social and industrial infrastructure, communications;

5. representation of members of associations;

6. preparation of proposals on budgetary and financial issues.

The main activities of the associations are carried out in two areas:

1. coordination of efforts of regional authorities for socio-economic stabilization and development of macro-regions; attempts to implement integration policy on the scale of a given macroregion;

2. dialogue with federal authorities on a collective basis on a wide range of issues; influencing the Government when resolving issues of economic rights of territories, allocation of resources for regional development, etc.

The first association was the North-Western, later there appeared: the association of Central Russia, the Black Earth Region, “Big Volga”, the North Caucasus, “Revival of the Urals”, “Siberian Consent”. It consists of federal subjects that are located in the territories of officially designated economic regions. The highest collegial body of the interregional association is the council or presidium, which includes the heads of the legislative branch of all constituent entities. The association is headed by the governor. In some cases (the Far Eastern Association), the department includes a federal inspector and the presidential envoy for the Far Eastern Federal District. All the most important decisions of the association are made at a meeting of the council, which meets several times a year. This council may be attended as invited persons by groups of experts, heads of enterprises and organizations, and scientific elites of the regions. The activities of associations are concentrated around the most important economic, social, and legal issues, therefore, within the association, separate councils and commissions are created in various areas. They are composed of representatives of the General Executive Committee and the Public Health Organization, entrepreneurs, scientists, and are headed by the Governor. The Interregional Association Council has its own executive body (a large executive directorate with a clear structure, departments that supervise and summarize the work of the commissions). All interregional associations have a budget formed from contributions from the regions in accordance with the expenditure item in the regional budgets and contributions from various enterprises and organizations. All these associations have their own large representative offices in Moscow, which carry out operational interaction with all interested federal bodies.

Social inclusion" of people with disabilities: social and educational integration.

Specificity of the methodology of scientific knowledge in the field of physical culture. Integration of approaches to understanding a process or phenomenon using a case study model.

Fundamentals of integration law

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§ 3. Regional, interregional and global integration

The third basis for classifying international integration into different types is its territorial level (scale) - the number and geographical location of the states participating in it.

If all or the vast majority of countries on the planet, located in different parts of the globe, participate in integration, then it can be considered global, i.e., worldwide. Currently, the main forum for global integration in the economic sphere is the World Trade Organization, within which trade barriers between the vast majority of countries have been reduced. After joining the WTO in the 21st century. first China, then Russia (2012) The World Trade Organization unites not only the states of all regions of the globe, but also all the largest economies in the world.

Some integration activities at the global level are also carried out within the framework of other universal organizations, primarily the United Nations and its specialized agencies. An example is the removal of obstacles to international air transportation of goods and passengers through the introduction of so-called air freedoms operating between member states of a specialized UN agency - the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO):

the right to a transit non-stop flight through the territories of other states (first freedom of air);

the right to transit flight with landing in other countries without commercial purposes, i.e. without taking on board or disembarking (unloading) passengers, cargo and mail (second freedom of air);

the right to deliver to other countries passengers, cargo and mail taken on board in the state of registration of the aircraft (third freedom of the air);

the right to take passengers, cargo and passengers on board in a foreign country for the purpose of delivering them to the state of registration of the aircraft (fourth freedom of the air), etc.

In turn, the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, signed under the auspices of the United Nations, makes the borders of states more open for maritime traffic, guaranteeing in Art. 17 “right of innocent passage” through their territorial sea for ships from any country, even those that are landlocked.

In another specialized UN agency, which includes almost all countries of the world - the International Monetary Fund (IMF), member states pledged not to impose restrictions on payments and transfers among themselves for current international transactions without the approval of the IMF (Article VIII “General obligations of states -members" of the Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund of 1944 as amended).

As noted in the works of representatives of Russian legal science, the member states of the IMF’s founding treaty thereby renounce “part of their jurisdiction, which can be regarded as a voluntary self-restraint of sovereignty, in line with globalization.” At the same time, under the transitional provisions of the IMF's founding treaty (Article XIV "Transitional Provisions"), member countries are permitted to maintain exchange restrictions on international transfers and payments in the interest of protecting their balances of payments, and many have exercised this right of withdrawal.

This withdrawal provides further evidence of the more cautious (partial) nature of global integration. It is quite obvious that due to the large number of participating states, the development of international integration on a global scale is obviously more difficult, and its degree is obviously lower than in the case of integration processes between states of individual regions of the planet, i.e. regional integration.

Regional integration represents integration processes between separate groups of states located close to each other, usually within the same continent of the globe or another geographical region.

According to its maximum geographical limits, regional integration can thus coincide with the territory of one part of the world and cover all states located in it. Attempts at this kind of continental integration are being made, for example, within the framework of the African Union, the Union of South American Nations UNASUR or the Council of Europe.

However, given the multi-speed nature of integration processes, regional integration associations with a narrower circle of member states are usually more successful. For example, in Europe, the most effective integration organization is the European Union, which today unites most, but still not all, countries of Eastern and Western Europe.

In Africa, integration processes are developing today, mainly not within the African Union as a whole, but within more compact integration unions and communities between the countries of individual regions of this continent: the Southern African Customs Union, the East African Community, the Central African Economic and Monetary Community, the West African Economic and Monetary Union and etc.

Fundamentals of integration law

The first textbook in Russia, which comprehensively examines and summarizes the world experience of legal regulation of integration processes, analyzes the patterns of formation and development of integration law at the regional, interregional and global levels, characterizes the most important achievements of the legal regulation of international integration in economic, political and other spheres of public life , the legal status of leading integration organizations operating in different parts of the globe has been studied.
Particular attention is paid to the practical aspects of Russia's participation in integration processes, including the legal basis for integration on the territory of the former USSR in the perspective of the formation of the Eurasian Union and legal mechanisms for regulating global economic integration within the framework of the World Trade Organization.
For students of law universities and faculties, students of international relations departments, government officials, foreign economic and foreign policy organizations, graduate students, teachers, as well as for all interested readers.

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Regional integration

Concept and signs of regional integration

We can talk about the emergence of regional integration as a phenomenon since the end of the Second World War. The states of Western Europe were the first to take this path. In 1950, the European Payments Union was formed, in 1951 - the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), in 1957 - the European Economic Community (EEC), in 1959 - the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). In 1949, the USSR and the socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe created the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), which was later joined by Mongolia, Cuba and Vietnam. In the 1960-1970s, after the collapse of the colonies, numerous associations of developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America appeared, including the largest - the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). At the turn of the 1980-1990s, the North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA), the South American Common Market - Mercosur, as well as the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and several other associations in the former USSR were formed. Subsequently, the most significant event was the enlargement of the European Union, which took place in two stages (the last one on May 1, 2004) and led to an increase in the number of its members from 12 to 25 states.

What do these associations, so different from each other, have in common? What gives us reason to talk about regional integration? Why does the concept of “regional integration” include both the EU, which in its development has reached the point of a single currency and constitution (even if not ratified), and ASEAN, which has not built even a primitive free trade zone in the thirty-eight years of its existence? Was the socialist CMEA an integration association if it fell apart at the first gust of a new political wind?

All these and many other questions can be reduced to one thing: what is regional integration?

The word "integration" comes from the Latin word "integer" - "whole". That is, integration presupposes the formation of a new community or a new set of individual parts that begin to manifest themselves as an independent whole. We can identify five main features of regional integration Butorina O. The concept of regional integration: new approaches // Cosmopolis, 2005, No. 3. P. 18-19..

The first feature follows from the most general concept of integration. By default, it is assumed that the unification of states into an integration group gives rise to a new quality that would be impossible (or immeasurably more difficult) to obtain on an individual basis. Integration appears to be a positive-sum game, making it beneficial for both each participant and the group as a whole. The condition for normal integration is considered to be a synergistic effect, that is, the receipt of a force that exceeds the sum of the individual forces. A striking example of such a phenomenon is the single European currency. Today it has greater stability and weight in the international arena than previous national currencies combined. Colonial empires cannot be considered integration, since their goal is to benefit only one side - the mother country.

The second difference is that the new union of states stands out from the rest of the world and in one way or another is isolated from it. Thus, the creation of a customs union involves the elimination of customs barriers between the participating countries and the introduction of a single customs barrier in relation to third countries. In other words, trade liberalization within a region is accompanied by intentional or unwitting discrimination against outsiders. Even the WTO has to reckon with this state of affairs: the rules of this organization allow that the most favored nation treatment does not take into account the terms of trade of a country with its partners in a regional association. Therefore, within the European Union, trade in, for example, wheat occurs without any restrictions, while grain imports into the EU from Canada or Russia are subject to high taxes, and in some cases, prohibitive anti-dumping duties. Separation occurs in other areas of life as well. It is enough to recall the European values ​​proclaimed in the EU constitution (in essence, forming the ideological profile of this association in the world) or the Schengen zone.

The third characteristic feature of integration is its voluntary and partnership nature. A spontaneous increase in the interdependence of states (for example, due to active foreign trade, the activities of TNCs and financial groups) cannot be considered integration. As noted by the famous Russian economist, one of the founders of the Russian school of integration studies, Yu. Shishkov, the signing of an agreement on the creation of a free trade zone in North America (1988) “was not so much the beginning of the integration process as the first large-scale formalization of de jure real integration of the USA and Canada , which de facto... began at the dawn of the industrialization of both countries in the middle of the last century” Shishkov Yu.V. Integration processes on the threshold of the 21st century. Why are the CIS countries not integrating? - M., NP “III Millennium”. 2001. pp. 288-289.. In other words, integration can be both a prerequisite and a consequence of integration. In addition, integration is a purely voluntary matter, which the participants in this process undertake consciously. Therefore, the forceful unification of territories - the seizure of colonies, the establishment of protectorates, the creation of empires - cannot be called integration.

The fourth sign is that integration extends to various areas of both the foreign and domestic policies of the participating countries. This distinguishes it from international organizations and other forms of international cooperation. The latter regulates mainly those actions of states (or other actors) that affect the interests of other members of the world community. The activities of international organizations lead to the emergence of international regimes, for example, in the field of non-proliferation of nuclear weapons or laundering of illegal proceeds. Regional associations create such regimes in areas traditionally within national competence. Thus, the EU has its own systems of standards, all-Union competition rules, not to mention a single monetary policy and a single currency. In addition, international organizations (except for regional ones, which remain in the overwhelming minority), as a rule, deal with one area of ​​public life: the IMF - currency relations, the IAEA - nuclear energy, OPEC - oil, etc. Regional associations always have a political and economic component, and also extend their activities to other areas - law, ecology, population migration, science and technology, education.

The fifth characteristic of integration follows from the four previous ones (especially from the first and second) and is of key importance for understanding the essence of this phenomenon. As world experience shows, regional integration is built on the awareness of its participants of the commonality of their future historical destiny. Of course, assessing the degree of commonality of people's destinies is a risky and thankless task. In almost every case, there are endless strings of arguments “for” and “against”, allowing one to obtain any predetermined result. In regional integration, the sense of political community is directed not to the past, but exclusively to the future. General features of historical development are important for integration only in terms of their contemporary results. Otherwise, they are usually adopted by political elites as a well-functioning propaganda technique.

Development and stages of integration processes in Western Europe

Western European integration began with the Paris Treaty establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), signed in 1951 and entering into force in 1953. In 1957, the Treaty of Rome establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) was signed, which entered into force in 1958. In the same year, the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) was formed. Thus, the Treaty of Rome united three large Western European organizations - the ECSC, the EEC and Euratom. Since 1993, the European Economic Community has been renamed the European Union (EU), reflecting the increased degree of integration of the member countries in the name change.

At the first stage, Western European integration developed within the framework of a free trade area. During this period, from 1958 to 1968, the Community included only 6 countries - France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. At the initial stage of integration between the participants, customs duties and quantitative restrictions on mutual trade were abolished, but each participating country still retained its national customs tariff in relation to third countries. During the same period, coordination of domestic economic policy began (primarily in the field of agriculture).

Almost simultaneously with the EEC, in 1960, another Western European integration group began to develop - the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). If France played a leading role in the organization of the EEC, then Great Britain became the initiator of EFTA. Initially, EFTA was larger than the EEC - in 1960 it included 7 countries (Austria, Great Britain, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Switzerland, Sweden), later it included 3 more countries (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Finland). However, the EFTA partners were much more diverse than the EEC participants. In addition, Great Britain was superior in economic strength to all its EFTA partners combined, while the EEC had three centers of power (Germany, France, Italy), and the most economically powerful EEC country did not have absolute superiority. All this predetermined the less successful fate of the second Western European group.

The second stage of Western European integration, the customs union, turned out to be the longest - from 1968 to 1986. During this period, the member countries of the integration group introduced common external customs tariffs for third countries, establishing the level of rates of a single customs tariff for each product item as the arithmetic average of national rates. The severe economic crisis of 1973-1975 somewhat slowed down the integration process, but did not stop it. Since 1979, the European Monetary System began to operate.

The successes of the EEC have made it a center of attraction for other Western European countries. It is important to note that the majority of EFTA countries (first Great Britain and Denmark, then Portugal, in 1995 three countries at once) “crossed over” to the EEC from EFTA, thereby proving the advantages of the first group over the second. Essentially, EFTA turned out to be a kind of launching pad for most of its participants to join the EEC/EU.

The third stage of Western European integration, 1987-1992, was marked by the creation of a common market. According to the Single European Act of 1986, the formation of a single market in the EEC was planned as “a space without internal borders in which the free movement of goods, services, capital and civilians is ensured.” To achieve this, it was planned to eliminate border customs posts and passport control, unify technical standards and taxation systems, and carry out mutual recognition of educational certificates. Since the world economy was booming, all these measures were implemented quite quickly. The outstanding achievements of the EU in the 1980s became a model for the creation of other regional integration blocs of developed countries fearing their economic lag. In 1988, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was concluded between the United States and Canada, and Mexico joined this union in 1992. In 1989, on the initiative of Australia, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) organization was formed, whose members initially included 12 countries - both highly developed and newly industrialized (Australia, Brunei, Canada, Indonesia, Malaysia, Japan, New Zealand, South Korea , Singapore, Thailand, Philippines, USA).

The fourth stage of Western European integration, the development of an economic union, began in 1993 and continues to this day. His main achievements were the transition to a single Western European currency, the euro, completed in 2002, and the introduction in 1999, in accordance with the Schengen Convention, of a single visa regime. In the 1990s, negotiations began on “eastern enlargement” - the admission of ex-socialist countries of Eastern Europe and the Baltics to the EU. As a result, in 2004, 10 countries joined the EU, increasing the number of participants in this integration grouping to 25. Membership in APEC also expanded during these years: by 1997, there were already 21 countries, including Russia.

In the future, a fifth stage of EU development, a Political Union, is also possible, which would provide for the transfer by national governments of all major political powers to supranational institutions. This would mean the completion of the creation of a single state entity - the “United States of Europe”. A manifestation of this trend is the growing importance of supranational EU governing bodies (the Council of the EU, the European Commission, the European Parliament, etc.). The main problem is the difficulty of forming a unified political position of the EU countries in relation to their most important geopolitical rival - the United States (this was especially evident during the US invasion of Iraq in 2002): if the countries of continental Europe gradually increase criticism of America's claims to the role of the “world policeman” , then the UK remains a strong ally of the US. As for EFTA, this organization did not advance beyond the organization of duty-free trade; in the early 2000s, only four countries remained in its ranks (Liechtenstein, Switzerland, Iceland and Norway), which also seek to join the EU. When Switzerland (in 1992) and Norway (in 1994) held referendums on joining the Union, opponents of the move won only a narrow victory. There is no doubt that EFTA will soon merge completely with the EU.

In addition to the EU and the “moribund” EFTA, there are other, smaller Western European blocs such as the Benelux (Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg) or the Nordic Council (Scandinavian countries).

Integration processes in Eastern Europe

When the socialist camp existed, an attempt was made to unite them into a single bloc not only politically, but also economically. The organization regulating the economic activities of socialist countries was the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), created in 1949. It should be recognized as the first post-war integration bloc, ahead of the emergence of the EEC. It was initially created as an organization of socialist countries only in Eastern Europe, but later it included Mongolia (1962), Cuba (1972) and Vietnam (1978). If we compare the CMEA with other integration blocs in terms of the share of world exports, then in the 1980s it was in second place, far behind the EEC, but ahead of the next EFTA, not to mention the blocs of developing countries. However, these seemingly attractive data concealed serious flaws in “socialist” integration. Therefore, already in the 1960-1970s, the positive potential for the development of CMEA was exhausted; subsequently, the trade turnover of the countries of Eastern Europe with the USSR and with each other began to gradually decline, and with the West, on the contrary, to grow.

The collapse of the CMEA in 1991 showed that the thesis of Soviet propaganda about the integration of national socialist economies into a single entity did not stand the test of time. In addition to purely political factors, the main reason for the collapse of the CMEA was the same reasons due to which most integration groupings of the “third world” countries do not function: by the time they entered the “path of socialism”, most countries had not reached that high stage of industrial maturity, which presupposes formation of internal incentives for integration. The socialist countries of Eastern Europe used their participation in CMEA to stimulate their economic development mainly through material assistance from the USSR - in particular, through the supply of cheap (compared to world prices) raw materials. When the USSR government tried to introduce payment for goods into the CMEA not at conditional, but at real world prices, then, under conditions of weakened political dictatorship, the former Soviet satellites chose to refuse to participate in the CMEA. They created their own economic union, the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA), in 1992, and began negotiations to join the EU.

In the 1990-2000s, hopes for economic integration of Russia with the countries of Eastern Europe were completely buried. Under the new conditions, some opportunities for the development of economic integration remained only in relations between the former republics of the USSR.

The first attempt to create a new viable economic bloc in the post-Soviet economic space was the Union of Independent States (CIS), which united 12 states - all ex-Soviet republics, except the Baltic countries. In 1993 in Moscow, all CIS countries signed an agreement on the creation of an Economic Union to form a single economic space on a market basis. However, when in 1994 an attempt was made to move to practical action by creating a free trade zone, half of the participating countries (including Russia) considered it premature. Many economists believe that the CIS, even in the early 2000s, performs mainly political rather than economic functions. The failure of this experiment was largely influenced by the fact that they tried to create an integration bloc in the midst of a protracted economic recession, which lasted in almost all CIS countries until the end of the 1990s, when the prevailing sentiment was “every man for himself.” The beginning of economic recovery created more favorable conditions for integration experiments.

The next experience of economic integration was Russian-Belarusian relations. Close relations between Russia and Belarus have not only an economic, but also a political basis: of all the post-Soviet states, Belarus is most sympathetic to Russia. In 1996, Russia and Belarus signed the Treaty on the Formation of the Community of Sovereign Republics, and in 1999 - the Treaty on the Establishment of the Union State of Russia and Belarus, with a supranational governing body. Thus, without consistently going through all the integration stages (without even creating a free trade zone), both countries immediately began to create a political union. Such “running ahead” turned out to be not very fruitful - according to many experts, Shishkov Yu.V. Integration processes on the threshold of the 21st century. Why are the CIS countries not integrating? - M., NP “III Millennium”. 2001., The Union State of Russia and Belarus exists in the first years of the 21st century. more on paper than in real life. Its survival is, in principle, possible, but it is necessary to lay a solid foundation for it - to go through all the “missed” stages of economic integration in sequence.

Thus, in the post-Soviet economic space there are both attraction factors (primarily interest in sales markets for goods that have little competition in the West) and push factors (economic inequality of participants, differences in their political systems, the desire to get rid of the “hegemony” of large and powerful countries, reorient to a more promising world market). Only the future will show whether the integration ties inherited from the Soviet era will continue to die out or whether new supports for economic cooperation will be found.

THE EURASIAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY (EURASEC) is an international economic organization consisting of the Republic of Belarus, the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, the Russian Federation and the Republic of Tajikistan. The Republics of Moldova and Ukraine (since 2002) and Armenia (since 2003) have observer status. The main goal of the EurAsEC is regional integration through the creation of a single economic space on the territory of its member countries. The organization is open to accepting new members who share its main goals and statutory provisions and are capable, in the opinion of the participating countries, of fulfilling their obligations.

The symbols (emblem and flag) of the Community were approved at a meeting of the Interstate Council of the EurAsEC at the level of heads of state on May 13, 2002. The flag with a white field depicts an emblem in the form of two geometric figures reminiscent of two wings of a fantastic bird, turned towards each other against a background of blue and yellow-golden - symbolic colors representing Europe and Asia. In the center is a globe with the outline of Eurasia.

History of formation

Almost immediately after the collapse of the USSR, attempts began to create a regional integration bloc in the post-Soviet economic space, similar in goals and objectives to the EU. Already in September 1993, the Agreement on the Economic Union (EU) was signed in Moscow. This union includes all 12 CIS countries (Ukraine as an associate member, all others as full members). The agreement provided, on the model of Western European integration, for the gradual creation of a free trade area, a customs union, a common market and a monetary union. However, this union, the “mini-USSR,” turned out to be unviable - it was not possible to create even a single free trade zone, since the decision taken in April 1994 to create a free trade zone was not ratified by half of the member countries (including Russia). After this, attempts began to develop post-Soviet integration with a smaller number of participants.

In January 1995, Belarus, Russia and Kazakhstan (later joined by Kyrgyzstan) signed agreements on the Customs Union. The goals of creating the Customs Union were declared

Removing barriers to free trade;

Development of uniform economic “rules of the game” for fair competition;

Coordination of the economic policies of the countries participating in the treaty, including to protect their interests in the world market.

The experience of implementing agreements on the Customs Union contributed to the preparation and signing of a larger document on close interaction and cooperation between states. On March 29, 1996, the presidents of the Republic of Belarus, the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic and the Russian Federation signed the Treaty on Deepening Integration in the Economic and Humanitarian Fields with the aim of creating a community of integrated states. The parties agreed to direct joint efforts to gradually deepen integration in the economy, science, education, culture, and social sphere, while respecting the sovereignty of the parties, the principles of equality and mutual benefit, the inviolability of existing borders, and non-interference in each other’s internal affairs. In February 1999, on the basis of previous agreements, the Treaty on the Customs Union and Single Economic Space was signed, to which the Republic of Tajikistan acceded.

The Treaty on the Formation of the Eurasian Economic Community was signed on October 10, 2000 in Astana (Kazakhstan) by the presidents of Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan. It contains the concept of closer and more effective trade and economic cooperation to achieve the goals and objectives that were defined by the Treaty on the Customs Union and Common Economic Space. The creation of the EurAsEC, on the one hand, marked the progressive development of economic integration from a free trade zone (duty-free trade) through a customs union (common customs tariff on goods from countries outside the union) to a common market (free movement of goods, capital, services, labor force, common trade policy towards third countries, common monetary policy). On the other hand, the formation of a permanent international organization for the consistent implementation of economic agreements was partly a reaction to the internal problems of the CIS and to the apparent commonality of the historical heritage of countries with transition (formerly planned) economies adapting to the modern world economy and preparing to join the WTO.

In May 2003, the UN recorded the status of the Eurasian Economic Community as an international organization.

In the fall of 2003, Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Kasyanov and Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev made statements about the possible introduction of a single currency within the Community until 2011. So far, all payments between businessmen of the EurAsEC countries are carried out in dollars. Whether the ruble will become the Community's single unit of account, or whether it will be some other monetary unit, is still unknown. However, all participants in the integration are aware that it will be possible to introduce such a currency only after the completion of the creation of a free trade zone, a customs union and a single economic space. A significant milestone on the path to integration was the 2003 meeting of the EurAsEC Interstate Council at the level of heads of state in Dushanbe, at which priority directions for the development of the Community for 2003-2006 were adopted. These include: the formation of a single customs space, coordination of the terms and conditions of accession to the WTO, the development of energy resources, speeding up the creation of the Eurasian transport union, the creation of a common agricultural market, migration policy, and the fight against drug trafficking.

At the same time, the pace of implementation of the tasks assigned to the Community is not always achieved and therefore often comes under fire from media criticism. Dissatisfaction with the development of the EurAsEC found expression in the creation in the spring of 2004 of another integration association - the Common Economic Space (SES): it did not include the relatively weak Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan, but it was possible to include Ukraine in the SES as a full member (together with Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan ).

Organization

The governing bodies of the Community are the Interstate Council, the Integration Committee, the Interparliamentary Assembly, and the Court of Communities.

The Interstate Council is the highest body of the EurAsEC. Considers fundamental issues related to the common interests of the Community member states, determines the strategy, directions and prospects for the development of integration and makes decisions aimed at implementing the tasks of the EurAsEC. When making decisions in the EurAsEC, different countries have unequal rights, according to the differences in their contribution to the budget: Russia - 40% of the votes, Belarus and Kazakhstan - 20% each, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan - 10% each. The Chairman of the Interstate Council is the President of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev.

The Integration Committee is the executive body of the Community, its main functions are: ensuring interaction between EurAsEC bodies, monitoring the implementation of decisions adopted by the Interstate Council, preparing proposals for the formation of the Community budget and monitoring its implementation.

The Community Court was established to ensure uniform application of the Treaty establishing the Eurasian Economic Community and other treaties and decisions taken within the Community. Its functions include consideration of economic disputes arising between members of the EurAsEC on issues of execution of decisions of Community bodies and provisions of treaties operating within the Community.

The Interparliamentary Assembly of the Eurasian Economic Community (successor to the Interparliamentary Committee) is the body for parliamentary cooperation of the EurAsEC member states. Its main objectives are the formation of a unified legal policy of the EurAsEC, coordination of the legislative activities of national parliaments, ensuring the implementation of the goals and objectives of the EurAsEC, the creation of organizational and legal conditions for bringing the legislation of the Community member states into compliance with treaties concluded within the framework of the EurAsEC, and the organization of inter-parliamentary cooperation.

In addition to the governing bodies of the EurAsEC, in the process of the evolution of this organization, various non-governmental forums have emerged, providing an opportunity to voice the interests of private business and entrepreneurial circles of the participating countries and provide a field for dialogue with the authorities and public organizations. So in 2002, the Business Council of the EurAsEC was formed and an association was created that united around itself professional guilds of enterprises in related industries (shipping, banking, construction, petrochemical, metallurgical, etc.). The founders of the Association were the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of the Russian Federation, the Russian Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs and the Association of Financial and Industrial Groups of Russia. And in February 2003, the first international Economic Forum of the EurAsEC took place - a new form of cooperation between businessmen from different countries. It is expected that this should give new impetus to integration processes.

Meaning

If we compare the EurAsEC with other integration groupings, despite the fact that many commentators draw parallels with the European Union and talk about some kind of Eurasian analogue of the EU, in fact the EurAsEC is not a supranational body and is rather close to the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), although and has great ambitions.

The first incentive for post-Soviet integration is associated with the relatively low competitiveness of many ex-Soviet goods in relation to foreign ones. If customs barriers are eliminated, then many branches of the manufacturing industry (textiles, food, woodworking, etc.) could completely go bankrupt under the pressure of cheap and high-quality imports. Therefore, all CIS countries are interested in creating a system of economic collective protection of domestic businesses, which would temporarily block the path of goods from foreign countries and at the same time prepare for future competition with them. Just as in 1960 Great Britain created EFTA to prepare for collective accession to the EU, so in the 2000s the EurAsEC coordinated positions for its members to join the WTO. The basic position for admission to the WTO is Russian guidelines. Agreements within the community are taking place in order to avoid additional trade concessions to giant countries - members of the WTO.

In addition, integration is aimed at restoring and maintaining economic ties between the former republics of the USSR, which were partially lost in the 1990s after the collapse of a single state. According to experts, without cooperative ties with other CIS countries, even Russia, the most self-sufficient of the ex-Soviet republics, is capable of producing only approximately 65% ​​of production. Kazakhstan, without connections with Russia, can produce only 10% of the range of industrial products, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan - less than 5%. Such high technologically driven interdependence is the second incentive for post-Soviet integration, forcing the former Soviet republics to maintain at least some elements of the Soviet system of economic ties.

The third incentive for the development of the EurAsEC is the desire, widespread among a significant part of “ordinary” people-citizens of the CIS, to “return to the USSR”. Even in the early 1990s, the desire for full national independence was not expressed by the majority of the population of the ex-Soviet republics. When, in the 1990s, all the “free republics” from the collapsed Union had to endure a deep and protracted crisis, the myth of the “strong and rich USSR, destroyed by self-interested politicians” became even stronger in the mass consciousness. Therefore, any events reminiscent of the “revival of the USSR” (even if we are talking about pure declarations) lead to an increase in the ratings of those politicians who organize them.

Thus, we can say that the creation of the EurAsEC (as before the Economic Community and later the Common Economic Space) was a reaction to the internal problems of the CIS and to the objective need for joint action in the modern world economy.

The economic development of the EurAsEC countries in the 2000s demonstrates some positive trends. In almost all countries of the Eurasian Economic Community, growth in key macroeconomic indicators was recorded in 2003, although the pace of this growth slowed down somewhat compared to 2002. All five states that are members of the EurAsEC have achieved relative stabilization of the exchange rates of their national currencies against the US dollar. In all Community countries there was a slowdown in inflation rates and an increase in average monthly wages. The trade turnover of the countries of this community increased by 88% in 2000-2004, while that of other CIS countries increased by only 11%. If within the CIS there are more than 300 restrictions on mutual trade, then in the EurAsEC there is not a single one, which allows members of the community to implement a freer trade regime with all the ensuing benefits.

Perhaps it was these optimistic indicators that became the most important argument in favor of Moldova, Ukraine and Armenia joining the community in 2002 (though so far only as observers, without voting rights).

The community continues to work to unify railway tariffs, simplify customs procedures, and create a payment and settlement system based on the Russian-Kazakh experience.

Union of Belarus and Russia

integration Eurasian economic union

An interstate integration association with international legal personality within the powers granted to it, formed by the Russian Federation and the Republic of Belarus (RB) on April 2, 1997.

The initial establishment of a deeply integrated politically and economically integrated community of two states within the Commonwealth of Independent States occurred on April 2, 1996, when the Treaty on the Formation of the Community of Belarus and Russia was concluded. At the same time, the parties relied both on the objective unity of their historical destiny and on the will of the peoples for further rapprochement, expressed in the results of the May referendum in Belarus and in the October (1995) decisions of the chambers of the Federal Assembly. The Community bodies (the Supreme Council, the Executive Committee, the Parliamentary Assembly) have made efforts to unite the socio-economic potentials of the two states and to operate a single customs space. The creation of interstate structures with unified management bodies began, including the Customs Committee, the Border Guard Service, and the Community Hydrometeorological Committee. In January-March 1997, a joint working group developed a draft Treaty on the SBR. However, as a result of serious political opposition, the agreed and initialed document was divided into a draft of a small Treaty (signed on April 2, 1997) and a draft of the Charter of the Union. The Charter, updated by the negotiating groups based on the results of a national discussion, was signed in Moscow on May 23, 1997. Federal Law of the Russian Federation dated June 10, 1997 No. 89-FZ “On the ratification of the Treaty on the Union of Belarus and the Charter of the Union of Belarus and Russia” was adopted by the State Duma and approved by the Federation Council. The Treaty and the Charter define the tasks of the Union: a) ensuring the rights of citizens of the member states of the Union; b) ensuring equal rights of citizens of the Union in receiving all types of education and medical care, employment, wages and other areas; c) adoption of legal acts of the Union; creation of the legal system of the Union; coordination of actions in the process of developing legislation of the participating states; d) creation and regulation of a common market in the field of energy, transport and communications; e) ensuring the free movement of goods, services, capital, labor within the borders of the Union; f) implementation of a unified customs policy, including ensuring the unity of customs management; g) ensuring favorable conditions for the functioning of a single scientific, technological and information space, implementation of an agreed structural policy, implementation of joint scientific and technological programs; h) ensuring a unified approach to the legal regulation of intellectual property; i) coordination of activities in the field of currency regulation; j) introduction of uniform standards, accounting rules: maintaining uniform statistics; k) development, approval and execution of the Union’s budget: l) use of the Union’s property; m) control over the implementation of decisions made, including the execution of the Union’s budget; o) introduction of the symbols of the Union. In addition, the member states of the Union agreed to make coordinated decisions on the following issues: a) development and implementation of joint programs in the economic, social, environmental and cultural fields; b) organizing interaction between the member states of the Union in the field of foreign policy on issues of mutual interest; c) coordination of foreign economic policy, including in relation to goods and services moved across the customs border of the Union, including licensing, price regulation and other non-tariff regulation measures, establishing rates of import and export duties and amounts of other customs duties (including excise taxes), other taxes related to foreign economic activity, as well as an agreed mechanism for their application; d) ensuring collective security; e) interaction in ensuring territorial integrity and security; f) ensuring the fight against organized crime, corruption, terrorism and other types of crimes; g) formation of a coordinated legal framework for economic, socio-cultural development, unification of the legal regime for the creation and activities of legal entities; h) development of unified approaches to determining measures of social protection, labor protection, social insurance, pensions: i) unification of monetary, budget and currency systems. financial markets, harmonization of the fundamentals of antimonopoly, tax and investment legislation; j) coordination of activities in the field of environmental protection, hydrometeorology, ensuring environmental safety, eliminating the consequences of natural disasters and accidents, primarily the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant.

The highest body of the RRF is the Supreme Council, which includes heads of state, heads of government, heads of chambers of parliaments of the Union member states, as well as the chairman of the Union Executive Committee with the right of advisory vote. The Parliamentary Assembly is the representative body of the Union and consists of deputations of 36 deputies each, delegated, respectively, by the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation and the National Assembly of the Republic of Belarus. The Executive Committee is a permanent body of the Union, formed by the Supreme Council; it includes an equal number of representatives of the participating states, the personal composition of which is approved by the head of the relevant state.

The Chairman of the Executive Committee and his deputies are appointed and dismissed by the Supreme Council. There are also sectoral bodies - the Customs Committee, the Border Committee, the Security Committee, the Committee on Hydrometeorology and Environmental Pollution Monitoring. Every citizen of the Russian Federation and every citizen of the Republic of Belarus is at the same time a citizen of the Union. Citizens of the Union are additionally endowed with rights and perform duties that are associated with citizenship of the Union, in particular the right: a) to free movement and permanent residence within the territory of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Belarus; b) to be protected in the territory of a third country, where there is no representation of the participating state of which he is a citizen, by diplomatic missions or consular offices of another participating state on the same conditions as citizens of that state; c) to participate in the management of the affairs of the Union; d) to own, use and dispose of property in the territory of another member state of the Union on the same conditions as citizens of that state. A Union citizen permanently residing in another Union member state has the right to elect and be elected to local government bodies on the territory of that state. The SBR creates legal conditions for economic integration. Joint programs are being implemented (for diesel automobile production, for the creation of ultra-large-scale integrated circuits, for the development of customs infrastructure, for the development of the external borders of the SBR, for increasing the profitability of flax production and processing based on resource-saving technologies, etc.). In the Russian Federation and the Republic of Belarus, customs, tax, budget, currency, and labor legislation is being unified. Legal conditions are being created for the development of joint financial and industrial groups. The Union is open to the accession of other states that are subjects of international law, share the goals and principles of the Union and accept in full the obligations arising from its Treaty and Charter. Accession is carried out with the consent of the participating states.

At the present stage, profound changes are taking place in the entire system of international relations. Their essential feature is globalization, part of which is economic and political integration.

European federalism, inspired by dreams of a united Europe, is the earliest and most widely known integration concept. This concept sets a clear strategic goal for integration - the unification of Europe through the formation of a superstate that will function on the principles of separation of powers. Federalists insist on the creation of supranational bodies to which member states would have to transfer part of their sovereignty.

Federalism has been chosen as the ideological basis for the future unification, allowing for an adequate distribution of sources of legitimacy and powers between different levels of government - local, regional, national and supranational. Citizens of a mega-state are assigned the same role as in a nation-state. They choose all levels of power above them and receive from the union government their primary identity - equal before the law and equal citizens of the union to each other.

An association that functions solely on the basis of interstate cooperation can hardly be considered integration. A mandatory feature of integration is the presence of centralized management (in EU practice this is called the communitarian principle). Therefore, integration is defined as unification with supranational governing bodies. Accordingly, the maturity of a particular integration group is assessed depending on what part of the decisions is made at the supranational level.

A feature of Western European integration is its institutionalization - it is carried out in the context of a significant role of states and governments creating influential international government institutions with executive and coordination functions. Thus, the integration process is pushed forward by the agreed policies of its participants.

Western Europe has taken a significant step towards economic and political integration. This is a reality, no matter how difficult the future actions of its participants may be - Western Europe is a confederal community of states, having a single parliament, a single government and, informally, even a united citizenship, along with national citizenship; a unified economic and social policy that coordinates the foreign policy activities of all its participants.

As for Eastern Europe and, especially, the post-Soviet space, these regions, on the contrary, in the last two decades have shown a significant desire for disintegration, the actual embodiment of which can be called the collapse of the CMEA, the “parade of sovereignties” in the USSR, the division of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, and many regional conflicts , including the military.

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