Newly industrialized countries (NICs). Common features

Newly industrialized countries (NICs) are a group of developing countries that have experienced a qualitative leap in socio-economic indicators over the past decades. The economies of these countries in a short period of time made the transition from backward, typical of developing countries, to highly developed, with all the inherent features of the latter. These include the following:

• o IPRs of the “first wave”: Republic of Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong (they are also called “Asian tigers” or “dragons”);
• o NIS of the “second wave”: Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Chile, Uruguay (“Latin American pumas”);
• o NIS "third wave": Malaysia, Thailand, India, Cyprus, Tunisia, Turkey, Indonesia;
• o Research vessels of the “fourth wave”: China, Philippines, Vietnam.

Note that in the analysis, all these countries (excluding the “first wave” NIS) are included in the PC. In the process of development of these groups of countries, two continental models.

The first one is asian model: development of the national economy with a primary focus on the foreign market based on borrowed technologies, with strong government support.

The second one is Latin American model: development of the national economy with a focus on import substitution based on the involvement of American TNK and TNB. At the same time, all these newly industrialized countries revealed some characteristic features in their development, in particular the following.

They demonstrate the highest rates of economic development (8% per year for NIS of the first wave), and during the global crisis, most of them did not experience a deep recession, only a drop in growth rates was observed.

The leading industry in these countries is manufacturing.

All these countries have an export-oriented strategy, hence the increased importance of foreign markets.

These countries are involved in active regional integration (LAI, MERCOSUR, ASEAN, etc.)

In a number of these countries, there is a process of dynamic formation of their own TNCs, successfully competing with TNCs of the leading countries of the world.

NIS pays great attention to education and science, the development of modern technologies and, in general, building human potential.

In these countries, the use of high technologies based on the cluster approach and partly outsourcing is developing unusually effectively.

All these countries are very attractive for TNCs due to the low cost of labor, the possession of significant raw material resources, the development of the banking and insurance sectors and the creation of a favorable “business climate” in them.

The main distinguishing feature, which serves as a kind of calling card of these countries, is the production of household appliances and computers, clothing, shoes, toys, and in large volumes for export to world markets.

All these countries are rapidly developing an international tourism industry that includes elements of business and commercial services.

Countries with economies in transition. Common features

Countries with economies in transition are states that emerged as a result of the collapse of: firstly, the Eastern European segment of world socialism, and these are the CMEA member countries; secondly - the USSR; thirdly - Yugoslavia.

Currently, these include a group of 28 states: Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Hungary, Georgia, Moldova, Macedonia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, Slovakia, Montenegro, Czech Republic, Croatia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Estonia (we previously noted that the Czech Republic was included in the 2010 IMF report as a developed country).

The transition economy is a special state that is characteristic of the national economy at the stage changes (learned) of existing socio-economic relations to others, qualitatively opposite to the first, i.e. this is a transformational process when the socialist economic system began to be replaced by the capitalist economic system. It should be noted that in terms of the level of socio-economic development, almost all of these countries (with the exception of Albania) at the beginning of the transition belonged to middle developed countries and many of them (in terms of the quality of production factors) were not much inferior to some members of the European Union (for example, Spain, and even more so Portugal and Greece); they were more developed than, for example, Cyprus or Malta. And, obviously, one could count on the relative painlessness of the transition stage from the point of view of maintaining the standard of living of the population during this transformation process. These were mainly industrial and industrial-agrarian countries with a high level of human capital development.

However, many of them (from the late 1980s - early 1990s), having chosen the transition to capitalism as their goal, but having no idea about it and no specific milestone tasks on the way to moving towards it, carried out rollback (deindustrialization ). Almost all of them found themselves in a short time as large debtors to Western banks and banking pools with relatively small foreign exchange reserves. Most of these countries have become characterized by a sharp reduction in government spending on health, education, culture and science, and in general for social purposes. As a result of declining birth rates and shorter life spans, the growth rate of the working-age population has significantly decreased; Many of these countries have high unemployment. Hence the high level of international labor migration; This is especially typical for a number of CIS countries (Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, and partly Ukraine). In the new EU members there is a high proportion of outflow of the working-age population to the “old countries”, in particular from Romania, the Baltics, Polynia and Hungary

The group of countries under consideration has significant features, and they are quite distinct, which allows us to conditionally divide this entire group into two subgroups:

• 1) countries of Central Europe and the Baltic states;
• 2) CIS participants.

The originality of the first group is due to the fact that, firstly, the history of Eastern European socialism began relatively late, after the Second World War, and the previous period of their capitalist development left deep root foundations. This contributed to more successful approaches to their modern capitalist transformation in the 1990s. Secondly, this group of countries found themselves in the area of ​​increased attention from the European Union, whose countries had a significant influence on their economic policies in a favorable direction and with positive results, as well as serious financial assistance.

A different situation has developed in the former union republics of the USSR, and in particular in the Commonwealth group (CIS). These are “classical” socialist countries, whose industrial development occurred entirely during the USSR era; most of them were able to take a huge step from feudal relations to the modern industrial era thanks exclusively to the USSR and as part of it.

The decisive role in the transformation process in them in the 1990s. Russia played: the libertarian methods of economic policy applied by the Russian executive branch were sometimes thoughtlessly included by their governments in the ongoing reforms (with rare exceptions). Hence the above rollback, processes deindustrialization , accompanied in some new states by both internal armed conflicts and interstate local wars throughout the 1990s. and even at the beginning of the first decade of the 21st century.

One of the main mistakes of the CIS governments was to dismantle social policy, the level and quality of which in general was a serious achievement; at one time it served as experience for the EU countries when they created a welfare state. Since the beginning of the 21st century. the situation began to slowly but gradually improve in almost all countries of the region. In Central Asia and the Caucasus, armed conflicts (the conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan) were stopped, capitalist economic relations in general made their way through the jungle of bureaucratic obstacles; markets for goods, services, money (currency) markets, etc. started working. In Russia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, and Turkmenistan, positive changes were largely associated with huge flows of petrodollars (and oil and gas revenues) as a result of rising prices on world markets for these strategic goods. Belarus managed to prevent a significant decline and increased its development potential. As a result, in 2001-2008. The CIS member countries have achieved the best collective economic results since the beginning of the transition period. All CIS member countries (except Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan) registered positive growth, which was explained, as noted above, mainly by an increase in oil and gas prices, and this also affected inter-republican economic dynamics; intensification of trade exchanges between them and the formation of fairly stable ties with different centers of the world economy (Russia, Ukraine, Georgia, Moldova - with EU countries, Central Asian CIS members - with Russia, China, Japan, Iran, Arab countries, Turkey, Belarus - with Russia and other CIS members).

Growth rates in these countries in 2001-2008. (before the global crisis unfolded in them) were quite high (over 5%), there were certain signs of strengthening industrial production. More generally, economic growth was supported by a slight increase in domestic demand, the continued influx of FDI and related investments, and the further relocation of production capacities from Western countries, Japan and China (including those related to the fuel and energy sector) to the region. Almost all of these states are closely linked to the global economy and therefore found themselves in a difficult situation when they were drawn into the global crisis in the fall of 2008. At the same time, the greatest decline in production and growth in unemployment were characteristic of Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan, since their economies were especially closely woven into the fabric of new schemes of the international division of labor under the dominance of powerful Western TICs and TNBs.

An important feature of countries with transition economies, including CIS subjects, is that the object of government regulation is the entire economic system regardless of what slogans were proclaimed (for example, “withdrawal of the state from the economy”). This regulation was carried out in a wide range: in some countries its object is, as emphasized above, the entire economic system, in others - individual industries or specific vital companies or areas that cannot be created in principle without the participation of the state, or the modernization process itself. In general, the following general features characteristic of the transition period can be identified:

• o The transition economy is an intersystem formation. Therefore, the essence of a transition economy is a kind of “mixture”, a combination of administrative-bureaucratic principles and a capitalist market system with their often contradictory functioning elements. If command and market economies are characterized by a certain integrity and sustainability of development, then a transition economy is characterized by instability of the state, a violation of integrity;
• o such a situation, which is a crisis for the existing economic system, can be considered normal for a transforming economy. The preservation and reproduction of instability and disequilibrium of the system for a relatively long time has its own reasons: it is transformation into another system to achieve better economic and social results. But this is theoretical; in the practice of individual countries, the main task of the ruling elites is to maintain integrity political system which ensures their presence in power. The tasks of improving the financial situation of the population and modernizing the economy are considered secondary;
• o A transition economy is characterized by quantitative and qualitative changes in the composition of elements. In the CIS member countries, including Russia, the remaining “inherited” structural elements of the previous system, in particular state enterprises in industry, agriculture, trade enterprises, cooperatives, etc., turned out to be destroyed, but full-fledged “substitutes”, in including the massive development of private small enterprises, did not appear. Nevertheless, new structures are being formed in these countries: large companies, not as a consequence of the successful development of small private owners, but as a result of the arbitrary allocation of factors of production to selected individuals; commercial banks, industrial monopolies, as well as farms, which, however, were poorly developed everywhere. Hence - many imbalances, weak sectoral diversification and an increased importance of imports;
• o A transition economy is characterized by qualitative changes in systemic social relations, primarily property relations, and in a fairly short time. The old planning-directive connections between economic entities disintegrated and disappeared, clearing space for the formation of new market connections in the emerging relations of the capitalist system. However, the latter are still unstable and their density is weak, and often they appear in deformed forms - reflecting mistakes and ill-conceived decisions of the authorities. The latter are often inevitable if they manifest themselves within the framework of a generally adequate economic policy, but become stable and widespread if such a policy is erroneous in the long term. It does not form the basis for balanced and sustainable growth, it is driven by subjective or ideological motives, the desire to immediately jump to the stage of developed capitalism;
• o A distinctive feature of a transition economy is the scale and depth of the ongoing transformations; they capture the foundations of the existing system. It is also clear that these relations must correspond to the interests of society. But in Russia (and a number of other CIS countries), the interests of society for the most part did not coincide with the reformatory transformations of the highest executive power, which did not take into account the opinions of the majority of the country's population. In particular, such a policy led to large-scale differentiation of society, when a small part of it (less than 3%) concentrated most of the national wealth in their hands, and the majority of the population received nothing and, as under socialism, still relies exclusively on the all-powerful state - leviathan and the leaders of nations;
• o a characteristic feature of a transition economy is institutional incompleteness, the absence or weak, underdeveloped state of market institutions. In most CIS countries, this is primarily the lack of a real competitive market, poor development of the stock market and the entire market infrastructure as a whole, total corruption, a powerful bureaucracy that uses administrative methods of power for enrichment, racketeering by local authorities, law enforcement agencies and organized crime. Hence the weak development of small entrepreneurship, its “thinness”, while in developed countries this entrepreneurship is a powerful platform on which medium and large enterprises stand. Small business is the foundation of modern capitalism; if this layer is narrow, then the new capitalist economy itself as a whole is unstable (due to the weakness of the “foundation”).

All these and other global processes have led to a new configuration in the arrangement of international global players in the world economy and international economic relations.

The most powerful of which was the first industrial power in the world - Great Britain. Europeans conquered almost the entire world, turned other countries into colonies, sales markets their goods.

By the beginning of the 20th century, the number of industrial countries increased. At the same time, non-European countries began to play an increasing role in world affairs - the United States and Japan, which had embarked on the path of industrial development.

Overall, out of a total world population of 1680 million people, industrial, industrial-agrarian and agrarian-industrial countries at the beginning of the 20th century were home to about 700 million people. About 600 million lived in the colonies (including approximately 400 million in the British).

A special place was occupied by a group of states with a total population of about 380 million people, which were formally independent, but in fact were in the position of semi-colonies of the great powers. At the beginning of the century these included China, Persia (Iran), Turkey, Siam, Egypt, Korea, and a number of others. The signs of a semi-colony were, as a rule, the acceptance by its authorities of unequal terms of trade, the provision of special privileges to foreign citizens, including their immunity from local authorities in the event of crimes committed. Semi-colonies became countries that, due to military-technical backwardness and the weakness of the central government, were unable to resist the colonial empires, but at the same time avoided complete conquest. This was due to the competition of industrial powers, which interfered with each other, and the special geopolitical position of the semi-colonies, which made their conquest difficult.

§ 1. Industrial countries: Aggravation of contradictions

By the beginning of the 20th century, the most important characteristic of world development was not only the increase in the number of industrial countries, but also their division into two groups, the first and second waves of modernization, or organic and catching-up industrial development.

Countries of the first echelon of industrial development.

For this group of countries, which included Great Britain, France, the USA, as well as a number of medium-sized and small European countries (Belgium, Holland, Scandinavian states), there was a gradual mastery of the industrial type of production. The Industrial Revolution, then the transition to mass, large-scale conveyor production occurred in stages, as the corresponding socio-economic and cultural prerequisites matured. These included the following.

Firstly, the maturity of commodity-money relations, the large capacity of the domestic market, its readiness to absorb large volumes of industrial products.

Secondly, the high level of development of manufacturing production, which was primarily subjected to modernization.

Thirdly, the presence of a large layer of the poor, people who have no other source of livelihood other than selling their labor, as well as a layer of entrepreneurs who have accumulated capital and are ready to invest it in production.

Thus, in England the industrial revolution began at the end of the 18th century. Heavy industry, mechanical engineering, as an independent industry, began to develop in the 20s. XIX century. Following England, the industrial revolution began in the northern states of the United States, unencumbered by the remnants of feudal relations thanks to the influx of emigrants from Europe with free labor resources. However, industrialization fully developed in the United States after the Civil War of 1861-1865. between the North and the South, which ended the plantation system of agriculture in the southern states, based on slavery, and strengthened the unity of the country's internal market. France, where manufacturing production traditionally existed, drained of blood by the Napoleonic wars, embarked on the path of industrial development after the revolution of 1830.

Countries of the second echelon of modernization.

Germany, Russia, Italy, Japan, Austria-Hungary delayed joining the industrial society for various reasons. For Germany and Italy, with the oldest manufacturing traditions in Europe and already established industrial centers in the 19th century, the main problem was fragmentation into small kingdoms and principalities, which made it difficult to form a sufficiently capacious domestic market. Only after the unification of Italy (1861) and Germany under the leadership of Prussia (1871) did the pace of their industrial development accelerate. In Russia, Japan, and Austria-Hungary, the obstacles to industrialization were the preservation of pre-capitalist relations in the countryside, various forms of personal dependence of the peasantry on landowners, limited internal financial resources, and the predominance of the tradition of investing capital in trade rather than in industry.

The impetus for reforms in Germany and Italy came from ruling circles seeking to further strengthen the positions of their states in the international arena and dreaming of creating vast colonial empires.

In Russia, one of the reasons for the transition to reforms was the defeat in the Crimean War of 1853-1856. which showed its military-technical lag behind Great Britain and France.

In Japan, modernization was preceded by the threat of bombardment of its ports by a squadron of American ships under Admiral Perry in 1854, which revealed its defenselessness. The forced acceptance of unequal terms of trade and relations with foreign powers meant the transformation of Japan into a dependent country. This caused discontent among many feudal clans, samurai (chivalry), merchant capital, and artisans. As a result of the outbreak of the revolution, Japan became a parliamentary, centralized monarchy headed by the emperor, and embarked on the path of reform and industrialization.

With the great diversity of countries in the second echelon of industrial development, a number of common, similar features emerged, the main one of which was the special role of the state during the period of modernization. Thus, in 1913 in the United States the state controlled only 9% of the gross national product (GNP), while in Germany it was 18%. The special role of the state was explained as follows.

Firstly, it was the state that was the main instrument for implementing reforms designed to create the preconditions for modernization. The reforms were supposed to expand the scope of commodity-money relations, reduce the number of low-productivity natural and semi-natural farms in the countryside and thereby ensure the release of free labor for use in the growing industry.

Secondly, in conditions when the need for industrial goods in the domestic market was previously satisfied by importing them from more developed countries, modernizing states were forced to resort to protectionism, the introduction of increased customs duties on imported products to protect only domestic producers who were gaining strength.

Thirdly, with limited internal resources for modernization and the weakness of domestic capital, the state directly financed and organized the construction of railways, the creation of factories and factories. In Russia, and especially in Germany, the greatest support was provided to the military industry and its service industries. The creation of mixed companies and banks with the participation of state and sometimes foreign capital was typical. The role of foreign sources of financing modernization in various forms (direct investments, participation in mixed companies, acquisition of government securities, provision of loans) was especially great in Austria-Hungary, Russia, Japan, and less so in Germany and Italy.

Most countries that carried out accelerated modernization had no alternative to it, since they were threatened with becoming second-rate, dependent states. Thus, Japan only in 1911 got rid of all the previously unequal treaties imposed on it. At the same time, the accelerated development of the countries of the second echelon of industrialization was a source of aggravation of many contradictions both in the international arena and within the modernizing states themselves.

Exacerbation of contradictions in world development.

One of the reasons for the growth of contradictions was the increase in the number of industrial countries, since the industrial capital of each of them sought to win a place for itself in the national and world markets. Even when England was the main "industrial workshop of the world", in 1825, 1836, 1847, it faced crises of overproduction. All the markets open to her could not absorb the products she produced. In 1857, the first global industrial crisis broke out, affecting not only Great Britain, but also other countries that had embarked on the path of industrial development. The struggle for foreign markets intensified between the industrial capital of these countries, on the possession of which the well-being of the emerging industrial countries depended.

The capacity of world markets gradually increased. Firstly, this was due to an increase in living standards in industrial countries (the US domestic market was considered especially capacious and dynamic at the beginning of the century). Secondly, with the erosion of the natural and semi-natural economy of the colonies and dependent countries, the development of commodity-money relations in their territories, which accelerated the formation of a global market and expanded consumer demand. At the same time, the development of world markets constantly lagged behind the increasing capabilities of production, which led to a deepening of economic crises. The crisis marked the advent of the new 20th century. The slide towards crisis began on the eve of the First World War of 1914-1918.

Crises accelerated the concentration and centralization of capital, contributed to the ruin of weak and ineffective enterprises and, from this point of view, contributed to increasing the competitiveness of the economy. At the same time, causing an increase in unemployment and aggravation of social relations, they created serious problems for industrial countries.

The social consequences of the crises were most painful in the countries of the second echelon of modernization. In countries that embarked on the path of capitalist industrial development later than others, social conflicts between labor and capital were combined with the unresolved agrarian question and the continuing struggle of the peasantry to complete or more equitably implement the agrarian reform. In the countries of the first echelon of modernization, the agrarian question was somehow resolved.

In states where contradictions between entrepreneurs and employees made themselves felt back in the last century and gradually worsened, experience has been accumulated in implementing flexible social policies. The workers' struggle for improved working conditions and higher wages was carried out within the framework determined by law, on the basis of bargaining and compromises between trade unions and entrepreneurs. At the same time, maintaining stability in society largely depended on the resources that could be allocated to reduce the severity of social problems. Where pensions were guaranteed to employees, an accident insurance system was introduced, acceptable conditions for access to medical care, education, etc. were created, workers had no incentive to express social protest.

In the countries of the second echelon of modernization, the state not only did not have the experience and means to solve social problems, but also, incurring large expenses to support domestic production, was forced to take unpopular measures, raising taxes, seeking other measures to replenish the treasury at the expense of the population.

It is significant that it was Russia, which had much fewer resources for social maneuver than other industrial countries, that experienced the greatest upheavals in the 20th century. Thus, the production of national income per capita in 1913 in Russia (in comparable 1980 prices) was only $350, while in Japan - $700, in Germany, France and Great Britain - $1,700 each. , in the USA - $2325.

The most important source of solving internal problems for the countries of the first wave of modernization, especially England and France, were the colonial empires. Great Britain managed to create the most extensive colonial empire in the world. More than a quarter of the world's population lived in its possessions; their territory exceeded the area of ​​the metropolis by almost 100 times. France became the second colonial power in the world, bringing Northern and Equatorial Africa and Indochina under its control.

The wealth exported from the colonies, the ability to monopolize their markets, receiving super-profits, enriched both the ruling elite and broad sections of the population of the metropolises. The poor, unemployed, not finding work in the metropolises, emigrated to the colonies. This was facilitated by the emerging diamond and gold rushes and the distribution of land on preferential terms. The constant outflow of surplus labor reduced the level of social tension. The colonies had a stable, guaranteed market for their products, which partly mitigated the severity of the crises for the metropolises.

The flip side of prosperity was the constant flight of capital. A high standard of living led to higher labor costs, which made investing in the economy of the metropolises unprofitable. There were no incentives for its development, since the colonial markets turned out to be not too demanding in terms of the range and quality of products. British bankers preferred to invest money in colonies, dominions (colonies populated mainly by immigrants from the mother country and given the opportunity for self-government, Canada - in 1867, Australia - in 1901, New Zealand - in 1907), as well as in the US economy . French capital was invested in government loans of those countries where high profits could be quickly obtained, in particular Russia.

Thus, in the economy of the formerly most developed countries of the world, there have been trends toward stagnation, it has lost its dynamism, and its growth rate has slowed down. On the contrary, in states that did not create extensive colonial empires, such as Germany, the USA, and Japan, most of the capital was directed to the development of national economies. Later, having embarked on the path of industrial development, they equipped the emerging industry with the most advanced technology, and this provided them with advantages in the fight against competitors. This led to the emergence of inconsistencies and contradictions between the levels of development of industrial countries and the distribution of colonies and spheres of influence between them.

An attempt to resolve this contradiction at the beginning of the 20th century, in conditions when the primary division of the world had already been completed, took the form of a struggle for the redistribution of colonies and markets for goods. The first war of the new era for the redivision of the world was the Spanish-American War (1898), as a result of which the United States captured the Philippines, the islands of Puerto Rico and Guam from Spain, and granted independence to Cuba. The second is the Anglo-Boer (1899-1902), as a result of which England established complete control over the south of Africa, capturing the Transvaal and Orange republics, founded by immigrants from Holland.

Germany, Japan and Italy showed the greatest activity and aggressiveness in colonial policy at the beginning of the century. As competition intensified in world markets, colonial policy intensified, and the rivalry between the leading powers on the world stage intensified.

The contradictions between the metropolises and the peoples of colonial and dependent countries began to become increasingly acute. With the development of commodity-money relations in these countries, the emergence of a layer of national bourgeoisie and intelligentsia who received a European education, protest movements against the colonial status intensified. Anti-colonial movements were often supported from outside by countries seeking to redistribute the world and expand their own spheres of influence. Thus, on the eve of the war with Spain, the United States showed solidarity with the liberation movement in the Philippines and Cuba, which, however, did not prevent them from including these countries in their orbit of influence after the victory. The slogan “Asia for Asians” was popular in Japan, implying that Asian countries should free themselves from the rule of white colonialists and enter the Japanese sphere of influence.

Table 1.
Changes in the share of leading industrial countries in world industrial production, 1860-1913.

Table 2.""
Population of the colonial possessions (millions of people), 1875-1914.

Questions and tasks

1. Describe the main groups of countries in the world according to the level of their industrial development at the beginning of the 20th century. What place did Russia occupy among them?

2. What features were inherent in the countries of the first echelon of industrialization?

3. What differentiated the countries of the second echelon of modernization from the most developed industrial states?

Almost all of the world's nuclear power plants are concentrated in a small number of industrialized and newly industrialized countries - the USA, France, Japan, Germany, Canada, Brazil, Great Britain, Sweden, South Korea, etc. also in the former Soviet republics, for several reasons. Firstly, these countries (with the exception of Canada, Great Britain and the USSR) are oil importers; they needed the development of nuclear energy to reduce their dependence on oil imports. Secondly, nuclear power plants are, from a technical point of view, the most complex way to produce electricity; the construction of nuclear power plants turned out to be within the capabilities of nuclear powers and countries with a high technical level of production. Thirdly, nuclear power plants are characterized by high capital intensity, so countries with large investment resources can afford their construction.

In the 20th century, a number of countries that lagged behind economically prosperous countries chose a catching-up path of development, which consisted of skipping over certain stages of development of the consumer sphere. For example, Japan began industrialization without any productive livestock farming, limiting its consumption of animal foods to seafood. New industrial countries chose catch-up development in the second half of the 20th century. Currently, China is following the catching-up path of development. This path was chosen by Russia in the 20th century. At the beginning of the century, Prime Minister S.Yu. Witte began the policy of industrialization, and at the end of the 20s it was continued by the Bolsheviks.

Products can be sold not only in domestic but also in foreign markets. On the basis of precisely this principle, the economies of newly industrialized countries (South Korea, Singapore, etc.) successfully developed in the 60-80s. Labor costs in the NIS were lower than in the United States, Western Europe and Japan, which allowed them to increase production and export of goods. But the growth in production could not but be accompanied by an increase in wages. Therefore, the newly industrialized countries gradually began to lose their main advantage and weapon of competition in world markets - cheap labor.

Historical experience has shown that countries with export-oriented economies (primarily NIS) are more vulnerable to the “zigzags” of growth and development of the world economy than countries whose economies are focused on the domestic market in their development (for example, the USA). Therefore, although wages in the newly industrialized countries are still at a lower level than in industrialized countries, the NICs, like Japan, have already entered a period of economic stagnation.

A two- to three-fold reduction in oil export revenues will be a heavy burden for the economies of OPEC countries. Expenses in the ORS, with an increase in oil prices two to three times, will amount to only 2-3% of GDP. Larger costs will be borne by developing and newly industrialized countries, where the cost of importing oil and petroleum products remains significant.

The main producers of plastics are industrialized countries. In 1996, eight ORS (USA, Japan, Germany, France, Belgium, Italy, Canada and Great Britain) produced a total of 84,790 thousand tons of plastics. The newly industrialized countries of Asia are occupying increasingly important positions in the global plastics market. In 1996, South Korea and Taiwan together produced 11,842 thousand tons of this product. In 1996, the 10 countries listed accounted for more than 3/4 of global plastic production.

The problem of maintaining stable international trade relations is key for Japan. But its foreign trade relations are extremely far from stable. Trade conflicts over the export of Japanese televisions, rolled steel and automobiles are now extending to products from newer industries such as semiconductor components and computers. It should be borne in mind that the causes of these chronic, periodically escalating trade contradictions are structural and long-term in nature, since there is a danger that developing countries that have reached the highest economic level (the so-called newly industrialized countries) will be drawn into the sphere of these conflicts, and the problem will become global. character.

First, the protracted downturn in the global economy is finding its way out in widespread protectionist sentiment. Secondly, there was a destabilization of systems such as free trade, floating exchange rates, etc. Thirdly, the slowdown in demand growth in the Japanese domestic market, together with the undervalued yen, increases the orientation of Japanese industry towards export markets and thereby increases the imbalance of trade payments between Japan and the USA, Japan and Western Europe, Japan and. Fourthly, foreign trade problems also have their own structural aspect, which consists in the fact that large differences in the levels of competitiveness across industries have arisen between industrialized countries (these differences are of structural origin). Fifth, among Japan's trading partners the number of countries with unstable socio-political conditions has increased, although Japan's international prestige as a trading power has at the same time grown very noticeably.

The situation is such that imbalances in Japan's trade with the United States, Western Europe and the newly industrialized countries are reaching alarming proportions. Conflicts over the export of certain goods are the inevitable consequences of progressive shifts in the industrial structure. Japan periodically takes measures to weaken these contradictions, and these measures produce results, but the overall size of the disproportions is so great that radical recipes are unsuitable here, since this is a structural problem that cannot be quickly resolved.

One of the reasons why this figure is so low for Japan is the long-term tendency to replace imports with domestic production. The Japanese have a hard time getting over the idea that imports are something undesirable. In addition, as soon as the import of a product begins to grow, Japanese firms quickly develop and launch its domestic versions on the market. In Japan, they try to produce locally everything that is technically possible. In addition, within reasonable prices, not all mass-market products from the United States, Western Europe, or newly industrialized countries can compete with Japanese ones in quality.

Firstly, no country has such a readiness to master and improve foreign technology - to get ahead of its teachers. The Western tradition does not imply a desire for improvement, and the newly industrialized countries have not yet accumulated sufficient experience.

Secondly, in Japan, improvement of production technologies is usually carried out directly in factories, in workshops, and not in research laboratories, which is not accepted either in Western countries or in newly industrialized countries. It is difficult to expect that they will follow the same path and be able to achieve the same quality and reliability that Japanese products are distinguished by.

In table Figure 11 shows the geographic distribution of technology exports from Japan. Most exports are steadily directed to developing and newly industrialized countries in Asia, but exports to developed countries are also growing, reaching almost a third of the total volume.

Residents of Singapore, whose population is 80% of Chinese origin, have different qualities. They have ambition, adaptability, quick reaction, but they do not have the traditions and skills of long-term learning and accumulation of professional knowledge and skill. Engineering and technical personnel in newly industrialized countries often change jobs, chasing high salaries and social status, moving from firm to firm, and therefore firms cannot accumulate technological experience.

Reaction speed and adaptability are necessary qualities for the development of modern technologies. This development, especially in electronics, proceeds in leaps and bounds, and any company that cannot update its products will soon be left behind its competitors. Japanese firms are generally highly adaptable. In newly industrialized countries, this property is developed much less than the traditional pace of life, leisurely and measured, incomparable with the feverish pace that is set by competition in Japan.

But it should be noted that between Japan and the countries catching up with it, there is now a different relationship than the one that existed in the post-war years between Japan and Western countries. During the three post-war decades, the rates of economic growth in Western Europe and the United States looked rather modest compared to the Japanese rates. But the new industrial countries, with all their success in mastering modern technologies, obviously do not have a large power reserve. Japan retains superiority in the pace of technical progress and ahead of them.

According to demographic statistics, over the past 25-30 years, a kind of epidemic has been raging in the industrial countries of America and Europe, claiming millions of lives every year. Damages of the cardiovascular system are the cause of more than 50% of all deaths. It has been established that these lesions are caused mainly by forms of mental stress that are unfavorable for humans. For a long time it was believed that psychological stress was unknown in Japan. Nowadays the sad truth is well known: the Japanese are no exception; they are victims of the same disease. It is caused by a wide variety of factors, including, among other things, a high degree of labor intensity.

The report concludes that the economic development gap between Asia and industrialized countries will widen by 1970 because Asian economic growth rates lag significantly behind those of industrialized countries. In Asian countries, per capita production increases over a ten-year period by only $16 (from $83 to $99), while in industrial countries it is estimated to increase by more than $500 (from $1,505 to $2,031). .).

Several years ago, in 1963, the UN Economic Commission for Africa stated 2 that the average per capita income in Africa (excluding South Africa) is 12 times lower than in industrial countries. In order to achieve the current level of per capita production in industrialized countries, African countries need to double agricultural production and industrial output by 25 times.

Another problem facing the cartel was that governments were becoming increasingly involved in the activities of the oil industry. Coal, steel and railroads, the traditional commanding heights of industrialized economies, have always been subject to strict official control. Therefore, oil, which was becoming increasingly important, inevitably also had to come under state control.

In fact, the specific negotiations that took place in 1971 were carried out on a different plane. Both consumers and oil companies were less concerned about the final settlement of the price issue than about the urgent need to achieve some stability in pricing and supply policies under which further growth in oil trade could occur. On the one hand, price was still not a sufficiently important factor in the costs of industrialized countries to provoke a confrontation on the issue, and the oil companies, while they could pass on any price increases to consumers, were not ultimately so personally interested in the issue. , to bring it to the limit, which would threaten them with self-destruction.

For three decades, if not more, the industrial countries of the West and the developing world have become accustomed to an ever-increasing influx of imported oil necessary for economic development. Now, suddenly, a buyer's market has become a seller's market, where

Producers, having tested their strength in the market, now moved quickly to take full and effective control of oil production by renegotiating their participation agreements, immediate nationalization, and the establishment of entirely new contractual terms. Having once drawn the sword of economic war, no one could be sure when it would be used again. Having taken control of prices, producing countries could no longer say with certainty how they would use their power in the future, how long their unity in OPEC would last, or what they would do with the huge surpluses that some of them would receive. as a result of increasing their incomes, and how they will sort their relations with the industrialized countries of the West and, even more difficult, with the rest of the developing world.

In retrospect, it is also noteworthy that the industrialized countries moved rapidly after the war to use oil as their main source of energy. was bound to create great difficulties for the entire system due to the gap between oil prices and the prices of other types of energy. While it could well be argued, as some did, that the price of oil was still too high for the consumer relative to its cost, the really important point was its relation to the cost of other fuels. If oil reserves were inexhaustible and its geographical distribution limitless (which in fact it was not), then a time would inevitably come when the sources of oil supply would begin to become depleted, and the price of hydrocarbons would at one time or another rise to the level of the cost of substitutes. types of fuel. In this sense, the Arab producing countries only brought this moment closer with the actions they took in 1973. They did not create this situation artificially, without any reason.

High wear and tear of equipment, lack of investment for their reproduction, the difficult financial situation of enterprises and a reduction in effective demand in the domestic market led to a decline in forest product production. The reduction in production volumes at enterprises consuming forest products (by more than 40%) is also caused by the discrepancy between the production range and the structure of demand, which is increasingly formed by the quality standards of products of industrial countries under the influence of the demonstration effect.

The policy of including Russia in international economic cooperation should not be used for the unilateral pumping of domestic raw materials, but for a radical structural restructuring of the Russian economy, because one of the most pressing problems of our industry is the need to renew fixed capital. In conditions of almost complete deterioration of production assets, not only are the trends of turning the Russian economy into an appendage of industrial countries intensifying, but the risk of environmental disaster is also increasing. Hence, state regulation of industry should contribute as much as possible to all forms of capital renewal (tax incentives for investments, liberalization of tariffs on the import of equipment). This will allow enterprises to concentrate certain financial resources for technological modernization and reconstruction of production.

NIS - Newly Industrialized Countries

Thirdly, Japanese products are distinguished by high quality workmanship and finishing, which meets the most demanding requirements of Japanese consumers. Working for the Japanese market is not easy for firms in developed countries and almost impossible for enterprises in newly industrialized countries.

The third group consists of already mastered industrial technologies, as well as those new technologies that are beginning to be widely introduced into production. These include the production of ferrous metals, cars, video recorders, and personal computers. Cooperation in product development is possible here, as well as purely production cooperation. As discussed in Chapter I, in industrialized countries all types of these technologies (ultra-large-scale integrated circuits, fiber optic communications, thinking robots, amorphous materials, highly functional polymers, etc.) are

The Pohang plant is a modern enterprise with an annual capacity of 8.5 million tons. It was built and launched with the technical cooperation of Shinnippon Seitetsu and other Japanese metallurgical companies. This is a prime example of the boomerang effect. But in other industries, such as the textile industry and the production of household electrical appliances, one can find many examples of how products produced in the newly industrialized countries of Asia using Japanese technology find good sales in the Japanese domestic market.

This is the result of those differences in the paths of historical development that were discussed in Chapter VI. Japan began to pursue a policy of industrialization soon after the Meidzp coup, only slightly behind Western Europe and the United States, and accumulated enormous technical experience. It is incomparable with the experience of newly industrialized countries that have been following this path for only 15-20 years.

After all, according to the latest calculations by experts from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and... development (OECD), which includes all industrial capital countries, for the proper growth of their fuel economy it is necessary during 1976-1985. invest 1.2-1.6 trillion dollars in this industry1 - an amount approximately equal to the gross national product of Japan, Germany and France combined, and so that this colossal amount does not end up being thrown away, that is, it can pay off and make a profit , it is necessary to maintain wholesale prices of the main type of fuel - oil - at a level not lower than 80-90 dollars per ton. By the way, when the OPEC countries raised the prices of their oil to $86 per ton on January 1, 1974, they cited as one of the main arguments in favor of this the need to make it profitable to develop considerable fuel reserves in Western countries - and thereby prevent the threat of rapid depletion of oil resources in OPEC countries - Supporters of new and even more

See pages where the term is mentioned Industrial countries

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• Newly industrialized countries (NICs) are a group of developing countries that have experienced a qualitative leap in socio-economic indicators over the past decades. The economies of these countries in a short period of time made the transition from a backward economy, typical of developing countries, to a highly developed one.

  Initial newly industrialized countries:

  R/Vs of the “first wave”: Hong Kong, Republic of Korea, Singapore, Taiwan (they are also called “4 Asian Tigers” or “4 Asian Dragons”); Latin American countries include Argentina, Brazil and Mexico. The newest industrial countries:

  NIS of the “second wave”: India, Malaysia, Thailand, Chile;

  NIS "third wave": Indonesia, Türkiye;

  NIS of the “fourth wave”: Iran, Philippines. Promising industrial countries

  from the Group of Eleven:

  Nigeria, Egypt, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Vietnam. There are two main NIS models:

  * Asian model: development of the national economy with a primary focus on the foreign market;

  Latin American model: development of the national economy with a focus on import substitution. Common features of new and newly industrialized countries:

  * demonstrate the highest rates of economic development (8% per year for NIS 1st wave);

  * the leading industry is the manufacturing industry;

  * export-oriented economy (Asian model);

  * active integration (LAI, APEC, MERCOSUR);

  * formation of their own TNCs, not inferior to TNCs of the leading countries of the world;

  * great attention is paid to education;

  * use of high technologies;

  * attractive to TNCs due to the low cost of labor, the possession of significant raw material resources, and the development of the banking and insurance sectors;

  * the main business card is the production of household appliances and computers, clothing and shoes.

Related concepts

The knowledge economy is the highest stage of development of the post-industrial economy and innovative economy, which is characterized by the information society or knowledge society; also the next stage in the great development of the economy and society of the advanced countries of the world. So far, the knowledge economy has been created by the USA and partly by the EU.

The Rust Belt, also known as the Industrial or Factory Belt, is a part of the Midwest and East Coast of the United States that was home to steel production and other American heavy industries from the beginning of the Industrial Revolution until the 1970s. Geographically, this belt typically includes central New York State, regions west of it in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan and Illinois to the western shore of Lake Michigan. Sometimes...

The Technate is a term coined by Technocracy Inc in the early 1930s to describe an area in which a technocratic society would use thermodynamic calculation techniques for energy needs instead of the money method.

The economy of the European Union is the second largest economy in the world in nominal terms and according to purchasing power parity (PPP). Thus, in 2017, the EU’s GDP was estimated at €15.3 trillion, which is approximately 22% of global GDP.

The Period of Stagnation or the Age of Stagnation is a political cliché used to designate a period in the history of the USSR, covering two and a little decades of so-called “developed socialism” - from the moment L. I. Brezhnev came to power (1964) until the XXVII Congress of the CPSU (February 1986) , and even more precisely - until the January Plenum of 1987, after which full-scale reforms were launched in all spheres of social life in the USSR.

The theory of stages of economic growth (Rostow's stages of economic growth) is a concept first proposed by American economics professor W. W. Rostow in 1959, suggesting a transition from a traditional society to an information society in five stages.

Maquiladora (Spanish: maquiladora “tax for grinding flour”) is an assembly-line industrial enterprise with clear signs of an international division of labor. As a rule, the founders and chief managers of maquiladoras are the heads of large foreign corporations - primarily the United States, which transfer the assembly of goods to developing countries with cheap labor. The term is most often used to describe American assembly plants in Mexico, typically located in...

Economic development - expanded reproduction and gradual qualitative and structural positive changes in the economy, productive forces, education, science, culture, level and quality of life of the population, human capital.

Szmichula cycles are long-term cycles of technological progress that are part of long-term economic waves. They are a key concept in the theory of technological progress of the Slovak political scientist Daniel Šmihula.

South-south cooperation is a term historically used in politics and academia to refer to the exchange of resources, technology and knowledge between developing countries.

The new economic mechanism ("chin taakan mai") ​​is an economic policy in the Lao People's Democratic Republic since 1986. Includes privatization of enterprises, promotion of foreign investment and creation of a market economy. Politically, Laos maintains a one-party system. In this regard, “chin taakan mai” is similar to the policy of reforms in neighboring socialist countries - the transformation of Deng Xiaoping in the PRC and Doi Moi in Vietnam. “Chin taakan mai” allowed Laos in the 1990s - 2000s...

Celtic Tiger (Irish An Tíogar Ceilteach, English Celtic Tiger) is an economic term derived from the common figurative name "economic tigers" of the economies of countries showing sharp growth, used to describe the economic growth of Ireland, the first stage of which took place from the 1990s to 2001, the second stage was observed in 2003, the third peak in 2008. From 1996 to 2007, Ireland's gross domestic product increased by an average of 7.1% per year, which not only exceeded global indicators...

Emerging markets are developing countries with market economies that are integrated into the world economy, but do not fully meet the standards of developed countries and do not have fully formed market institutions.

The US military-industrial complex is an alliance of the monopolistic core of the US military industry with the top of the state apparatus, that is, the military-industrial complex of the state.

A planned economy, or planned economy, is an economic system in which material resources are publicly owned and distributed centrally, obliging individuals and businesses to act in accordance with a centralized economic plan. A system of central planning existed in the USSR and other countries that identified themselves as socialist.

Acceleration is the slogan and political course of the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee Mikhail Gorbachev, proclaimed on April 23, 1985 at the April plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, one of the key directions of the reform course (“glasnost - perestroika - acceleration”), carried out in the USSR in 1985-1991.

Globalization is a process of worldwide economic, political, cultural and religious integration and unification.

Mentions in literature (continued)

The depression of the mid-70s - early 80s, caused by the exhaustion of the potential of this technological order, led to an arms race with the widespread use of information and communication technologies, which formed the core of the new, fifth technological order. The subsequent collapse of the world socialist system, which failed to timely transfer the economy to a new technological structure, allowed the leading capitalist countries to take advantage of the resources of the former socialist countries for a “soft transplant” to a new long wave of economic growth. The export of capital and brain drain from the former socialist countries, the colonization of their economies facilitated the structural restructuring of the economies of the core countries of the world capitalist system. On the same wave of growth of the new technological order rose newly industrialized countries, who managed to create its key production facilities in advance and lay the preconditions for their rapid growth on a global scale. The political result of these structural transformations was liberal globalization with the dominance of the United States as the issuer of the main reserve currency.

Despite many publications and studies, it is still unclear why some countries (in particular, Tropical Africa), after several decades of independent development, hardly significantly increased their per capita GDP. At the same time, other developing countries, including newly industrialized countries(NIS) – Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea, as well as such giants as China, India and Brazil, in general, are rapidly increasing their economic potential and diversifying the structure of their economies.

The influence of IEO on the development of the world economy is constantly growing. The rapid growth of national wealth in most countries since World War II is largely due to the development of international economic relations. The highest growth rates are typical for countries with economies with a high level of export development, for example Japan, China, newly industrialized countries Asia (Thailand, South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, Malaysia, etc.). These same countries, as well as some Latin American countries, actively used the influx of foreign capital to accelerate growth.

Politically, after liberation from the colonial yoke in the East (with the exception of Japan), three groups of countries emerged: countries developing along the capitalist path, among which in the 70–80s. so-called newly industrialized countries(NIS); non-European socialist countries, which, being part of the socialist community, at the same time belonged to the third world in terms of the level of socio-economic development and the tasks facing them; countries of the so-called socialist orientation.

The current situation in the scientific and technical sphere of the regions is characterized by a significant lag behind the developed and newly industrialized countries according to the main indicators of the development of scientific and technical potential.

For this, as the world experience of overcoming similar structural crises in the 70s and 30s of the last century shows, a fairly powerful initiating impulse for the renewal of fixed capital on a fundamentally new technological basis is required. Experience of similar breakthroughs in newly industrialized countries, post-war Japan, modern China, and even in our country, indicates that the required increase in investment and innovation activity involves an increase in the rate of accumulation to 35–40% of GDP with its concentration on breakthrough areas of global economic growth. At the same time, in order to “stay on the crest” of a new wave of economic growth, investments in the development of production of a new technological structure must increase annually by at least 1.5 times, the share of R&D expenses in GDP must reach 4%.

Newly industrialized countries play an increasing role in the export of industrial goods with high knowledge intensity to developed countries, including Russia, China, Kazakhstan, as well as to the countries of Central Asia.

The process of blurring the spatial and geographical boundaries between the developed center and the backward periphery especially intensified after the Second World War. Moreover, a number of countries in the 70–90s. made a rapid leap from agrarian-industrial societies into a post-industrial and information society. We are talking about the so-called newly industrialized countries(NIS) of East and South Asia, such as South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia, etc.

Economic dynamics are shifting from the transatlantic to the Pacific axis. Old industrial countries are losing their monopoly on high-quality products and technologies, newly industrialized countries immediately entering the era of high technology.

Russia's lag behind developed and newly industrialized countries in technological development is largely due to the features of its NIS, listed below.

Newly industrialized countries (NICs) are represented by a number of states in Asia and America. They have a higher rate of economic growth than their neighbors.

Two models of economic development

Newly industrialized countries develop their economies according to two different models. The Asian one can be characterized, firstly, by the fact that it allows the country to exceed exports over imports, and secondly, the share of state ownership in these powers is not high. However, the administrative power makes absolutely all decisions in the economic sphere. The newly industrialized countries of foreign Asia have proven the viability of this economic model with comprehensive, steady and very rapid development.

The second model - Latin American - is completely and completely opposite to the Asian one. Imports predominate here. But Latin American countries, despite this, are also experiencing good growth in their economies.

Characteristic features of NIS

At the present stage, the newly industrialized countries have achieved certain successes in improving the living standards of the peoples living in these territories. The potential for joining the common world space is quite high. The achievements that characterize the newly industrialized countries are:

• economic growth is high;
• manufacturing industry is the most developed industry;
• the level of education in the country is receiving increased attention;
• More and more advanced technologies are being used.

These, of course, are not all the characteristic features of NIS. It should be noted that in recent years, the newly industrialized countries of Asia and South America have been increasingly cooperating with Russia. In the investment and goods markets, the leader of the Asian region in such interaction was the Republic of Korea. Argentina and Brazil stand out from Latin American countries.

Former colonies

The last forty years have given the world the opportunity to classify those ideas on the basis of which the countries of so-called paracapitalism developed, trying to catch up with the developed ones, in which capitalism appeared much earlier. In addition, the policy of predatory militarism allowed them to accumulate untold wealth at the expense of the colonial countries. With the help of three conceptual ideas, the economic breakthrough that we see today became possible.

Conceptual ideas

The first of these is called the Great Leap Forward doctrine. It was tested in the USSR during the period of industrialization in the thirties of the last century, and subsequently it was adopted by China in the sixties. The basis of this idea was the nationalization of the means of production, as a result of which the Celestial Empire turned into one huge commune. The idea worked in extreme conditions for the country, but, unfortunately, it was not replaced in time by another, since for prosperous times its principles have too many and numerous shortcomings. For example:

• implementation occurs due to enormous tension, almost slave labor is used;
• the productive forces of society decline as the gene pool is destroyed;
• The distribution system of an equalizing nature in times of calm for the country gives rise to dependency; the quantity and quality of labor is underestimated or assessed inaccurately.

Import substitution

The second idea was called the protection of young industry and was based on the principle of import substitution. Its essence is that national industry is given some respite to catch up with competitors from other countries. The newly industrialized countries of Asia were given the opportunity to develop their own economies by limiting and even completely discriminating against imports.

The import substitution policy contributed to the creation of artificial incentives (both foreign trade and foreign exchange) for the development of entire industries in order to increase their competitiveness in domestic markets. However, this idea also has a drawback - one, but a very significant one.

Often, protection was provided not to young, but to completely “decrepit” industry, when enterprises are passive, lack initiative, expect handouts from the state and do not introduce new technologies. This model worked best in large markets, for example in China and India (at the turn of the seventies and eighties of the last century), but the newly industrialized countries of South Asia, central Europe and Latin America implemented this idea unsuccessfully.

Doctrine three - Asian economic miracle

This model, called the idea of ​​a “flock of flying geese” by a Japanese economist in the thirties of the 20th century, is very characteristic of the Asian way of thinking. This is exactly how Japan and the newly industrialized countries raised their economies, which, while experiencing very unfavorable moments in both politics and economics, shared their experiences with each other and, after the sixties, managed to come out ahead of the rest of the world thanks to private investment. Moreover, foreign partners almost always participated in this.

Prerequisites for the emergence of NIS

The collapse of the colonial system after World War II redrew the political maps of all continents. Many independent states were formed, naturally with a very low level of development, since the colonial countries only exported the wealth of the colonies without giving anything in return. Thus, India by the beginning of the fifties was completely illiterate - more than 90 percent of the population could not read and write, but England greatly increased its capital due to the wealth of this colony.

Economic development during this period was extremely uneven throughout the world. Naturally, countries that had freed themselves from foreign domination sought to reduce the resulting gap by any means necessary. Thus, a special group of territories emerged - the new industrial countries of Asia and America.

Here we need to name first of all South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore - these are the four so-called Asian tigers. Next come Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines. A special word needs to be said about countries such as Mexico, Brazil, Argentina.

Results of the economic leap

The pace of economic development of the new industrial countries was such that most of them, in many indicators, overtook not only developing countries, but also many developed capitalist ones.

The economy grew rapidly, so the gross domestic product (GDP) per capita increased significantly. In this, the new industrial countries were ahead of almost all the liberated states, and some came closer to the industrialized ones. In terms of the share of domestic savings in the structure of GDP, Asian NIS have overtaken the majority of former colonialists.

Certain types of industrial products, especially their high-tech types, are now already in leading positions in the world economy. Export is developing even faster. The high competitiveness of products is intensively conquering more and more new markets.

Spheres of production

World exporters of shoes, clothing, textiles, consumer electronics, personal computers, electronic equipment, cars are newly industrialized countries. Whatever high-tech goods appear on the world market, the largest share of their production falls on NIS. They managed to find niches and squeeze out competitors from among the most developed countries. The influence of NIS on the structure, dynamics, and geographical direction of trade in the world is truly great.

New industrial countries (especially East Asia) influence the internal general economic situation and all the main partners in trade and economic cooperation. The growth of world exports is also mainly helped by the dynamic increase in the export of various goods that were manufactured in the territories where backward states liberated from the yoke of colonialism were recently located.

The countries of the "Newly Industrialized Countries" group, especially the Asian region, have chosen the manufacturing industry as the leading sector of economic development. Here they have higher labor productivity - at the level of capitalist developed countries and even higher.

Industrialization process

By the 1980s, newly industrialized countries restructured their economies to increase the share of knowledge-intensive industrial products. Foreign economic relations developed rapidly, and the importance of NIS in the global economy grew. In terms of the amount of export value, it has already surpassed the level of leading capitalist countries, except Germany and the USA. However, it is these countries that have become the main sales market for NIS due to their high competitiveness. This happened because NIS set the main way to develop the country’s economy through the effective use of the most advanced techniques and technologies, all the achievements of scientific and technological revolution, and modern methods of organizing production. As a result, labor intensity and productivity increased significantly, and low production costs made it possible to use the price factor in competition.

The concentration and merger of production and capital (industrial and banking) form the country's financial capital. Monopolies are expanding, national corporations are expanding their activities to the international level. Along with the export of goods, there is also a large export of capital abroad, where branches and subsidiaries of a production nature are formed. Loans are given to complement foreign direct investment.

The industrialization process of Asian and American countries is divided into three stages.

• The first is import-substituting industries.
• The second is export potential and basic industries.
• The third is knowledge-intensive industries.

All three stages took place with the active participation of capital and TNCs of the leading capitalist countries.

Newly industrialized countries: list

The result of all of the above can be the following. In the economic development of the countries of South and Southeast Asia, Japan has become the leader, and the second row is occupied by the new industrial countries of foreign Asia: Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore. The four ASEAN member countries in the third row are Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippines. The fourth row is Vietnam and China, which have already been practically joined by Pakistan and India.

Japan, it must be said, is no longer considered the “leading goose”. China is beginning to play a special role - it is it that lays claim not only to regional but also global leadership. And in this “flying flock” itself, very serious problems are brewing.

Nevertheless, history will remain evidence of how developing countries as a whole group, over the course of several decades, managed to make an economic leap of unprecedented strength - in all socio-economic indicators. In this short period of time, a transition has been made from the most backward economy, very typical of all developing countries, to the most highly developed.

So, what are these newly industrialized countries like? The list as of today is as follows:

• First wave of NIS: Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong (“Asian dragons” or “tigers”).
• Second wave of NIS: Argentina, Chile, Brazil, Mexico, Uruguay.
• Third wave of NIS: Thailand, Malaysia, Cyprus, India, Turkey, Tunisia, Indonesia.
• Fourth wave of NIS: China, Philippines.

There is still the Commonwealth of Nations, created by England and until 1946 called British. This is an interstate voluntary association of independent sovereign states under the auspices of Great Britain. It included all British colonies, dominions, and protectorates. On this list, only Rwanda and Mozambique are not subject to this definition, and the republics of Ireland and Zimbabwe left the union. Newly industrialized countries belong to this group, at least most of them.