In the activities of a commercial bank, the resource base is of paramount importance. This is determined by the fact that commercial banks can carry out credit and other active operations within the limits of available resources, and this ultimately affects the final result - profit. Banks are constantly dealing with the formation of resource potential and its stability.

The resources of commercial banks, or banking resources, are a set of own and borrowed funds available and used to carry out active operations.

Management of banking resources is a complex and multifaceted problem that does not have a clear solution and requires a systematic analysis of the state of banking assets and liabilities.

The fundamental principle of the activities of a commercial bank is to work within the limits of actually available resources. This means that a commercial bank must ensure not only quantitative correspondence between its resources and credit investments, but also ensure that the nature of banking assets matches the specifics of the resources mobilized by it.

The main strategic goal of the bank's activities in the field of resource provision is to increase the resource base, subject to maintaining liquidity and profitability. The bank's resource base, liquidity, profitability are the foundations on which the entire banking mechanism is built. There are certain contradictions in the relationship between these categories. The resource base reflects the level of the bank's market position and the opportunities that the bank has to conduct commercial activities. This is a quantitative indicator; it determines the amount of funds available to the bank in a specific period of time.

Resources can be used for both short-term and long-term investments. For long-term investments, long-term resources are more acceptable, but in conditions of inflation and instability, the resources attracted by banks are mainly short-term in nature.

The structure of banking resources may be different for different banks. This depends on many factors, including the specifics of the bank’s activities, the composition of the clientele, and market conditions.

The main sources of formation of banking resources are:

• 1) own funds;
• 2) raised funds;
• 3) borrowed funds.

Own funds include: authorized capital, reserve fund for possible losses, other funds formed through deductions from profits, as well as profits not distributed during the year. The main element of equity capital is the authorized capital (capital). Its increase can occur both at the expense of shareholders' funds (issue of bank shares) and at the expense of its own funds (profits, shareholder dividends, reserve and special funds).

The authorized capital of banks is the basis for organizing banking. It determines the minimum size of the bank's property, which guarantees the interests of its creditors and serves as the basis for establishing the bank's economic standards. The minimum size of the authorized capital is determined by the National Bank and is established uniformly for all banks.

The reserve fund for possible losses of commercial banks is intended to cover possible losses of banks on active operations. Reserves are formed through monthly deductions from profits. Banks also create special funds using contributions.

The theory of banking distinguishes between the concepts of own funds and equity capital. Own funds are a generalized concept that includes all the liabilities of the bank formed in the course of its internal activities:

• - authorized and reserve funds, other funds and reserves created at the expense of profits; emission differences;
• - revaluation funds;
• - retained earnings from previous years and current year earnings.

The bank's equity capital is a calculated value and includes authorized capital, reserve capital, reserves to cover various risks, founder's profit, retained earnings of the current year and previous years.

The bank's own capital protects the bank from all types of risk and serves to complement the future development of the bank's lending activities and the expansion of its organizational structure.

Traditionally, the bulk of resources is formed by commercial banks using borrowed funds. Attracted resources are resources the use of which allows banks to develop more efficiently and achieve success in their activities. Deposit operations represent the basis on which the process of making a profit is built.

The main tool for attracting resources is setting the correct interest rates on attracted resources.

The most important methods for creating a favorable situation for the development of the bank’s resource base are:

• - setting interest rates using the cost plus profit method;
• - attracting clients with higher incomes;
• - establishing fees for account balances;
• - establishing a deposit policy based on market interest rates;
• - establishing an interest rate mechanism to attract cheap resources from other states;
• - establishing good relationships with clients who have significant account balances.

All attracted resources are divided into deposits and non-deposit funds.

In global banking practice, deposits are understood as funds or securities of legal entities and individuals deposited for storage and temporary use with a banking institution.

The effectiveness of bank management is decisively determined by the quality of liability management, the main item of which is deposits. This solves two main problems: 1) where the bank can obtain funds at the lowest cost and 2) how management can guarantee deposits sufficient to provide the necessary volume of loans and other financial services. Successfully addressing these challenges is not easy.

Ultimately, liability management comes down to two basic requirements:

• ? minimizing interest costs;
• ? recognizing the importance of customer relationships.

The ability to minimize interest costs on deposits depends on the reaction of individual groups of depositors to changes in deposit rates. The more sensitive certain groups of depositors are to changes in interest rates, the more difficult it is to minimize interest costs on deposits. Segmentation of the deposit services market helps determine the demand for deposits based on the degree of sensitivity to the rate. By varying deposit rates across different segments, banks are able to reduce deposit costs.

Non-deposit funds are considered to be resources that are generated by commercial banks by selling their own debt obligations on the money market or by receiving loans from other credit institutions, including the central bank. Non-deposit sources of bank funds, unlike deposits, are not personal in nature and are not associated with specific bank clients. They are purchased on the market, often on an auction basis, which involves competition. Based on this, they are called borrowed.

The cost of attracted resources depends on a number of external macroeconomic and political factors affecting the level of development of the economy of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Among these factors, the first to be named are:

• ? ongoing monetary policy;
• ? inflation rate;
• ? investment climate for external investors;
• ? legislative framework in force in the republic.

A commercial bank must maintain a certain ratio between its own and borrowed resources. An excessive amount of borrowed funds increases the risk of loss of bank liquidity and increases the potential threat of insolvency of a commercial bank. The predominance of the bank's own funds in the composition of banking resources also cannot be unambiguously called a positive phenomenon. This is due to a possible decrease in the level of dividends paid and the market value of shares. An imbalance in the structure of sources of banking resources may cause a deterioration in the performance of a commercial bank and a decrease in its image in the market for financial resources.

Consequently, the main goal of managing the liabilities of a commercial bank is to optimize the structure of banking resources, which allows, at the lowest cost for generating resources, to ensure the maintenance of a stable level of dividends to shareholders and volumes of profit of the bank sufficient for its dynamic development.

Increasing competition between banks and other financial institutions for deposits of legal entities and individuals has led to the emergence of a huge variety of deposits, their prices and service methods. According to some foreign experts, in developed countries there are currently more than 30 types of bank deposits. Moreover, each of them has its own characteristics, which allows clients to choose the most appropriate form of saving money and paying for goods and services that suits their interests and capabilities.

The structure of a commercial bank’s resources in its qualitative and quantitative composition may differ significantly from the structure of resources of both other commercial banks and from the structure that has developed in the region as a whole. This depends on many factors, such as the period of operation of the bank, the size of its authorized capital, the characteristics of the bank’s activities, the composition of operations provided for by the banking license, the quantity and quality of clientele, the bank’s lending policy, participation in financial markets and, finally, the state the banking resources market itself.

The operations through which commercial banks generate their resources are called passive. The essence of passive operations is to attract various types of deposits within the framework of deposit savings operations, obtaining loans from other banks, issuing various securities and conducting other operations. Passive operations are fundamental in the activities of banks, since only a high-quality and stable resource base allows them to carry out their credit and other operations to place funds that generate profit, the receipt of which is the goal of their activities.

From the point of view of sources of education, the resources of commercial banks are divided into their own and attracted. Sources of equity capital are the authorized capital, share premium of the bank, its funds, retained earnings of the reporting year and previous years, subordinated loans to legal entities, etc. The authorized capital of a credit organization is formed at the time of creation of the bank and initially consists of the amount of deposits of its participants.

The structure of the bank's own funds is heterogeneous in terms of qualitative composition and changes throughout the year depending on a number of factors, in particular on the nature of the use of the profit received by the bank. The bank's own funds are made up of the authorized capital and profits, from which the bank pays taxes, forms reserve and other funds, and pays dividends to its shareholders in the remaining amount. Equity management plays an important role in ensuring the sustainability of liabilities and profitability of the bank

Raised funds occupy a predominant place in the structure of banking resources. In global banking practice, all raised funds, according to the method of their accumulation, are divided into deposits and other raised funds. The bulk of the funds raised by commercial banks are deposits. It is important to note that deposits are accepted only by banks that also have the right in accordance with the license of the Bank of Russia.

In order for commercial banks to maintain their liquidity, that is, the ability to timely, fully and uninterruptedly make payments on their obligations, the Central Bank establishes mandatory ratios between the bank’s own funds and attracted resources.

An important banking resource is customer funds in accounts with a commercial bank and funds in settlements: balances of funds and current accounts of enterprises, organizations and institutions of all forms of ownership; funds deposited to ensure payment guarantees for letter of credit payments, settlements by checks with accepted payment orders; funds in settlements between institutions of one commercial bank; funds from budgetary and public organizations; funds from special credit and financial institutions.

Banking resources include the population's monetary savings, which are formed by reducing current personal consumption and are intended to meet its needs in the future.

The resources of commercial banks are loans provided by other banks, including foreign ones, as well as funds of other banks located in their correspondent accounts with a commercial bank.

Finally, the resources of commercial banks include other funds that are generated as a result of their other types of passive operations.

Depending on the place of mobilization of banking resources, they are divided into those mobilized by the commercial bank itself and acquired from other banks. Locally, commercial banks mobilize most of the resources, for example, deposits of citizens and deposits of enterprises and organizations. To quickly meet additional needs for funds, commercial banks attract resources mobilized by other banks.

The resources of a commercial bank can be classified according to the ability to predict their value. At the same time, resources are allocated that can be directly and indirectly predicted. Direct forecasting resources include profits from previous years and retained earnings. Funds in settlements, balances of temporarily free funds in the settlement accounts of enterprises and organizations, and some other sources of banking resources are subject to indirect forecasting.

Depending on the time of use, banking resources are divided into permanent and temporary. Constant funds are funds whose dynamics or turnover by a commercial bank can be predicted and a certain part of them (stable balances) is used for active operations. Temporary banking resources create funds generated periodically as a result of certain banking operations, the dynamics of which are difficult to predict.

Own funds are the main type of security for the bank’s obligations to depositors, therefore, determining their actual value and maintaining the latter at the required level is one of the primary tasks for the bank.

To more accurately characterize the bank’s resource base, it is necessary to determine the stable part of deposits, which can be defined as funds that are not affected by fluctuations in market conditions. The stable part of deposits includes time deposits and part of demand deposits. Bankers are constantly busy determining that portion of deposits that can be safely used for lending purposes for the bank. Russian banks often take a simplified approach to defining the stable part of deposits, meaning only the share of time deposits.

Modern banking practice is characterized by a wide variety of deposits. A qualitative, comparative analysis of the structure of attracted funds can be carried out by client groups and terms, which makes it possible to identify from which sectors of the economy and for what period the bulk of funds are attracted to the bank.

One of the indicators of the reliability and stability of a commercial bank's resource base is the bank's interest rate policy in the field of attracted resources. This policy must be within the framework of two opposing boundary requirements: first, the level of interest rates on deposits (both time and demand) must be sufficiently attractive to potential depositors; secondly, it should not sharply increase the lower limit of the interest margin between the bank's active and passive operations.

We can conclude that more financially stable banks, which care about their liquidity and solvency, offer interest rates on deposits no higher than the industry average. A high interest rate on time deposits and deposits of individuals and legal entities indicates, first of all, that a commercial bank has an unstable resource base that is insufficient for effective credit investments. Such a bank tries to expand and stabilize its resources by attracting deposits, offering depositors an increased interest rate. But attracting resources at a higher interest rate also involves making investments at a higher interest rate, that is, investments are usually riskier, and instead of profit, depositors may lose the deposit itself in the event of a bank collapse.

However, profitability and liquidity of banks are not achieved automatically. An obvious solution to the problem of attracting cheap and placing expensive resources is to pursue a bank policy that can bring the highest income at a reasonable, from the point of view of the bank management, level of risk. On the one hand, the management of the bank, the shareholders (shareholders) of the latter are interested in higher incomes, which can be obtained by investing in long-term projects, securities of dubious quality, etc. However, such actions inevitably seriously impair the bank's liquidity, which is necessary to withdraw deposits and to satisfy legitimate demand for credit.

Changes in the volume of funds attracted to current accounts, on the one hand, and to time (savings) deposits, on the other, represent the basis for studying the bank's liquidity from the point of view of liabilities. A significant increase in time deposits reduces the profitability of the bank's operations, but increases the liquidity of its balance sheet. An increase in balances on current accounts and demand accounts, as a rule, indicates a reverse trend. A change in the share of balances on current and fixed-term accounts in favor of, for example, private individuals generally indicates a reduction in the cost of resources, since their deposits cost the bank less. However, in a competitive environment, banks often set interest rates for fixed-term accounts of large clients at the interbank level, and for accounts of small and medium-sized clients - at a lower level. Thus, an increase in the share of resources attracted by a bank from clients (other than banks) generally indicates an increase in the profitability of banking operations.

Increasing the share of demand deposits reduces the bank's interest costs and allows for higher interest profits. Time deposits are considered the most stable part of attracted resources. Increasing the share of time deposits in the resource base helps to increase the bank's stability and allows for effective management of the bank's liquidity and solvency.

Thus, it is advisable to use more widely in modern Russian banking practice the analysis of the ratio of assets and liabilities of banks by amounts and terms, as well as by sources and areas of use of funds. In addition, the structure of the liabilities of the bank’s balance sheet to a large extent determines the structure of the assets of its balance sheet, that is, the directions in which these funds are used.

Banks must have a certain amount of funds to carry out their commercial activities. The specificity of the activities of banks is that, on the one hand, they attract temporarily free funds from various sources, and on the other, they place them, satisfying the needs of enterprises, organizations, and the population that need additional resources on the terms of repayment and payment.
Banking resources are the totality of funds at the disposal of banks and used by them for credit and other active operations. It is necessary to distinguish between the term “bank resources” and the term “lending resources”. The second concept is much narrower, since it defines only that part of the bank’s resources that it uses for credit investments.
Sources of banking resources are formed as a result of banks conducting passive operations. The following main groups of passive operations of commercial banks are distinguished: primary placement of equity and debt securities of their own issue; formation and increase of bank funds; deposit operations; loans and borrowings received from other legal entities; other operations.
When a commercial bank carries out certain passive operations, it generates various types of resources: its own and borrowed.

A commercial bank's own funds consist of funds generated by it and profits received by the bank as a result of its activities in the current year and over the past years. The bank's funds form the basis of its own funds. Each of them has a specific purpose. The order and sources of their formation also differ.
As noted in paragraph 18.1, the starting point in organizing banking is the formation of authorized capital (capital) by commercial banks. Its creation in the amounts determined by law is a mandatory condition for registering a bank as a legal entity. Regardless of the organizational and legal form of the bank, its authorized capital is formed entirely from the contributions of participants - legal entities and individuals. The funds contributed to the authorized capital represent the initial capital for carrying out the economic and commercial activities of the newly created bank and throughout the entire period of operation of the credit institution they are the economic basis of its existence.
In addition to the authorized capital, commercial banks form a number of special-purpose funds (for example, a reserve fund, a bank development fund, etc.), the sources of creation and replenishment of which are bank profits. A separate group can be divided into bank funds, the formation of which is associated with various foreign economic factors. These are the so-called revaluation funds.
A special group in the bank's funds consists of funds accumulated as a result of depreciation of fixed assets.
The bank’s own funds include a number of other elements: reserves for risks and payments created at the expense of the bank’s profits; emission differences resulting from the sale of initially placed shares at a price exceeding their par value; redistributed profits of the reporting year and previous years.
It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of “own funds” and “equity capital of the bank”. If the first concept is a generalized one, including all the bank’s liabilities formed in the course of its internal activities, then the bank’s own capital is a calculated value. It may include, in addition to
selected items of own funds, and certain types of borrowed funds. An example of such funds would be a subordinated loan. The possibility of equating it to own funds is due to the specific requirements that this loan must meet. For example: fairly long terms of attraction (at least five years); the lack of possibility for the creditor to demand repayment terms previously provided for in the contract; payment of the principal amount of the debt only after the end of the contract.
The bank's own capital performs a number of important functions, the main ones being protective, operational, and regulatory.
The protective function is the ability to protect the interests of depositors, where equity capital can serve as a source of payment of funds for obligations in the event of a loss of liquidity of the bank and during its liquidation. Capital plays the role of a kind of protective “cushion” and allows the bank to continue operations in the event of large unexpected losses or expenses.
The operational function is manifested in the fact that the bank, at the expense of reserves, funds and profits that make up its capital, can make a number of expenses (for example, for the acquisition of fixed assets and intangible assets), make investments in the authorized capital of other entities, etc.
The regulatory function of a bank's own capital lies in the fact that central banks, by establishing economic standards mandatory for all commercial banks, some of which are related to the amount of equity capital, have a real opportunity to regulate the activities of banks. Such standards for banks of the Republic of Belarus are: capital adequacy; maximum risk per client; maximum size of large credit risks; maximum risk for funds placed in foreign countries that are not members of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development; maximum risk per creditor (depositor); the maximum amount of own bill obligations; the standard for the bank's participation at the expense of its own funds in the authorized capital of one legal entity; maximum amount of funds raised from individuals, etc.

The bank's own capital is the basis of its commercial activities, ensures the financial stability of the bank and its solvency, and serves as a source of covering unforeseen expenses resulting from various risks of the bank.
A significant part of banking resources consists of borrowed funds. According to the established tradition in world banking practice, depending on the method of accumulation, all attracted resources are divided into deposit and non-deposit. This division is carried out based on who is the initiator of the operations. Deposits include funds that are placed in the bank at the request of clients. They represent funds deposited into the bank by its clients - legal entities and individuals. Non-deposit resources are funds that are attracted at the initiative of the bank. This portion of resources is sometimes classified as borrowed funds.
Based on their economic content, deposits can be divided into several groups: on demand; urgent; savings deposits.
The main characteristic of all demand deposits is the ability of their owners to use these funds without prior notice: to make payments and transfers at their expense, to receive part of them for use for purposes permitted by law in the form of cash, to deposit them and even completely withdraw them.
For banks, the main inconvenience of deposits of this kind is associated with the fairly high risk of their simultaneous withdrawal and the need to maintain a large reserve of funds for settlements on such obligations.
The most stable part of deposit resources are time deposits and savings deposits. Time deposits refer to funds deposited with a bank for a fixed period. In some cases, commercial banks resort to processing time deposits with deposit and savings certificates.
For a bank, from the point of view of managing its liquidity, term deposits are the most acceptable, since the withdrawal of these funds by their owners is expected only after the end of the agreed terms.

Non-deposit (borrowed) funds are considered to be resources that are formed by commercial banks by selling their own debt obligations (bills, bonds, bank certificates) on the money market or by receiving loans from other credit institutions, including the central bank. Non-deposit sources of bank funds, unlike deposits, are not personal in nature and are not associated with specific bank clients. They are purchased on the market, often on an auction basis. The reasons for attracting such resources may be the need to increase the balance of funds in the correspondent account to complete interbank settlements and prompt regulation of bank liquidity. The purchase of resources on the interbank market may also be associated with the possibility of their effective use for specific target programs, and sometimes in this way the missing part of the resources is mobilized to meet the needs of the bank’s most significant clients.
The structure of banking resources is understood as the ratio of the shares of various types of bank resources in their total volume. The structure of resources is influenced by various factors: the state of the loan capital market; the bank has appropriate licenses giving the right to carry out transactions with foreign currency and funds of individuals; the duration of the bank’s activities, on which the volumes of its own and attracted resources depend; the composition of the clientele who are the suppliers of raised funds; type of bank (specialized or universal), etc.
Resource management deserves special attention -
m and commercial banks, which is an activity related to the accumulation of funds, determining the size and appropriate structure of sources of these funds in direct connection with placement.
The most important task when banks use their own and borrowed resources is to simultaneously ensure maximum return on banking assets and an acceptable level of liquidity. The bulk of the banks' income is provided by credit investments, investments in securities and investments; the overall liquidity of the bank is maintained by placing resources in highly liquid assets: average
funds in cash on correspondent accounts with the central bank and other commercial banks. A certain part of the resources is used by banks to acquire fixed assets and intangible assets. Such assets are characterized as not liquid and not generating income, but they are necessary to ensure the normal functioning of the bank, like any other business entity.
A significant role in the management of banking resources belongs to commercial banks, but since changes in the size and structure of banking resources affect the dynamics of money supply indicators, centralized regulation of the resource base of commercial banks should also be carried out.
Regulating the resource base of commercial banks is not the direct task of the central bank, however, within the framework of monetary policy, the National Bank of the Republic of Belarus, through the implementation of various methods of monetary regulation, can have a direct or indirect impact on the amount of resources of commercial banks.
In general, the need for regulatory influence of the National Bank of the Republic of Belarus on the resource base of commercial banks is caused by the requirements to ensure the security and liquidity of the entire banking system.
The main goals of resource management carried out by commercial banks are: maintaining the bank's own liquidity; meeting customer demand for credit investments; obtaining a profit sufficient to pay dividends in amounts satisfactory to shareholders and for the development of the bank.
An important element of resource management of a commercial bank is the management of its liabilities. As a rule, it consists in determining the optimal structure of sources of banking resources for a particular bank.
One of the tasks solved in the process of managing the resources of a commercial bank is their efficient allocation, which would reimburse the costs of attracting them and provide the bank with profit while simultaneously meeting the liquidity requirements of the National Bank of the Republic of Belarus. This is achieved through the close interconnection of passive transactions with assets. The bank must ensure quantitative and qualitative compliance with the size and nature of
the resources at its disposal, the directions and terms of credit investments, as well as investments in other assets.
Commercial banks carry out resource regulation mainly on an operational basis. There is a daily comparison between expected revenues and liabilities due on a specific date. Free resources can be used to increase credit investments and for sale on the interbank market. Along with operational regulation, commercial banks draw up long-term plans and forecasts for the month, quarter, year and other periods.
Management of banking resources is a rather complex process, and the liquidity, profitability, profitability and general financial condition of a commercial bank largely depend on its quality. The concept of bank liquidity
The specificity of the functioning of banks as financial intermediaries is that they widely use borrowed resources to carry out active operations. In this regard, the bank’s ability to timely and fully fulfill its obligations to creditors and depositors, that is, bank liquidity, is of particular importance.
Liquidity is one of the generalized qualitative characteristics of a bank’s activities, which largely determines its reliability. The stability of the monetary system as a whole largely depends on the liquidity of individual commercial banks. Liquidity disruption and bankruptcy of one bank may lead to loss of liquidity and insolvency of other banks and clients. This explains the importance of regulating the activities of commercial banks in the field of liquidity by central banks.
The concept of bank liquidity includes the liquidity of the bank's balance sheet, the liquidity of the bank, and the liquidity of the banking system.
The bank's balance sheet is liquid if its condition allows, through the rapid sale of assets, to cover urgent liabilities.
Bank liquidity is a broader concept and is manifested in the timely fulfillment by the bank of its contractual obligations, and not only due to absolutely liquid
prominent assets held in monetary form (funds in the bank's cash desk and in its correspondent accounts, in the central bank and in other commercial banks), but also through the sale of other assets (for example, government securities that can be converted into monetary form), and also through loans on the interbank market.
One of the most important conditions for a bank's liquidity is the liquidity of its balance sheet.
The broadest concept is the liquidity of the banking system. It characterizes the ability of the country’s entire banking system to timely and uninterruptedly fulfill contractual obligations and provide the planned volumes of domestic lending to the economy and government. This is achieved, in particular, through the redistribution of funds between banks through the money market.
The obligations for which the bank is liable to creditors and depositors consist of real and potential. Real liabilities are reflected in the bank's balance sheet and are presented in the form of deposits (time and demand), attracted interbank resources, and creditors' funds. The guarantees issued by the bank, taken into account off the balance sheet, represent its potential liabilities. Bank liquidity presupposes the timely fulfillment of all undertaken obligations, including those that may arise in the future.
To fulfill their obligations, banks use various sources of funds: cash in the bank's cash desks; funds in correspondent accounts with the central bank or commercial banks; assets (for example, government securities and precious metals) that can be quickly sold and converted into cash; interbank loans received from the central bank or purchased on the interbank market.
The use of these sources should not be associated with losses for the bank. Thus, the sale of assets should be carried out as usual, at a predetermined price, within the planned time frame, and the acquisition of resources on the interbank market - on terms acceptable to the borrowing bank. Thus, a bank’s liquidity should be interpreted as its ability to fulfill its obligations not only on time, but also without significant losses. Opportunity

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the implementation of these conditions is determined by a number of internal and external factors.
Internal factors include: a reliable capital base of the bank; quality of bank assets; quality of deposits; moderate dependence on external sources; balance of assets and liabilities by maturity; positive image of the bank; proper level of management.
A reliable capital base means the presence of a significant amount of the bank’s own capital, the basis of which is the authorized capital, redistributed profit of the bank and other funds. These funds provide the bank with financial stability. The greater the bank's equity capital, the higher its liquidity.
The assessment of the quality of a bank's assets is based on such criteria as liquidity, riskiness, profitability and diversification. The liquidity of assets is understood as the ability to be converted into cash upon their sale or as a result of the repayment of obligations by the borrower (debtor). The degree of liquidity of a particular type of asset depends on its purpose. Traditionally, according to the degree of liquidity, assets are grouped as follows: first-class liquid assets. They consist of the bank's funds in its cash desk and correspondent accounts, as well as government securities; relatively liquid assets. These include: short-term (up to 30 days) loans to legal entities and individuals; provided interbank loans and demand deposits; short-term bills, factoring, and in countries with a developed securities market - commercial corporate securities; less liquid assets. They include long-term loans and investments; illiquid assets. They include: buildings, structures, intangible assets; overdue bad debts on loans; losses.
Based on the riskiness of assets, the potential for losses when they are converted into cash is assessed. The higher the share of risky assets, the lower the bank's liquidity.
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Analysis of the bank's assets from the point of view of profitability allows us to assess their effectiveness, that is, their ability to generate income and thus form a source of funds to increase the bank's capital base.
According to the degree of profitability, assets are divided into two groups: income-generating and non-income-generating. You should take a balanced approach to increasing income-generating assets, since they are, as a rule, less liquid and carry a greater likelihood of losses (risk) upon their sale compared to non-income-producing assets.
Asset diversification refers to the degree to which a bank’s resources are distributed across different areas of placement. Basically, the asset structure is assessed in the context of various areas of resource investment (cash, loans, investments, etc.); types of counterparties (central bank, commercial banks, legal entities, individuals); types of currencies. The greater the degree of diversification of assets, the higher the liquidity of the bank.
A bank's liquidity is directly affected by its deposit base, since it represents the obligations that the bank must fulfill in a timely manner. The main criterion for the quality of deposits (time and demand) is their stability. The larger the share of stable deposits in the bank's resource base, the higher the bank's liquidity.
A bank's liquidity can be significantly affected by its dependence on external sources, which are interbank loans.
An interbank loan allows you to eliminate the short-term lack of liquid funds, but if it occupies the main share of attracted resources, then unfavorable conditions in the interbank loan market can lead to the early withdrawal of the provided resources or their sharp rise in price, and ultimately to the collapse of the bank.
The balance of assets in terms of amounts and terms has a significant impact on the bank's liquidity. When placing attracted resources into fixed-term assets, the bank should not lose sight of the terms for which they were provided by depositors. Neglect of this rule when working with borrowed resources may lead to the bank’s inability to fully fulfill its obligations in a timely manner. Although not all bank deposits are withdrawn at the same time and a certain part of them is constantly renewed, for the main share
assets and liabilities, the balance rule must be observed without fail.
The image of the bank plays an important role in maintaining liquidity at the proper level. A bank with a positive reputation has advantages over other banks when forming a resource base: depositors are more likely to trust it with their funds; lower probability of unplanned withdrawal of raised funds; it is easier to search for resources on the interbank market to eliminate short-term shortages of liquid funds.
In many ways, the degree of bank liquidity depends on the quality of management. Moreover, an important role is played by both the level of organization of liquidity management and the management system of the bank’s activities as a whole.
The state of bank liquidity depends, as noted earlier, not only on internal, but also on a number of external factors, the main of which are: the general economic and political situation in the country; the degree of development of the securities market and the interbank market; organization of a refinancing system; effectiveness of the supervisory functions of the central bank.
The liquidity of commercial banks is assessed based on
based on regulatory indicators established by the central bank and mandatory. In world banking practice, there are various modifications of liquidity indicators, but all standards are usually established as the ratio of various balance sheet asset items to the entire amount (or to certain items) of liabilities or, conversely, liabilities to assets.
The following liquidity standards have been established for commercial banks of the Republic of Belarus: instantaneous; current; 1 short-term; ‘ minimum ratio of highly liquid and total assets.
Instant liquidity is an indicator of the bank’s ability to fulfill primary obligations at the expense of absolutely liquid assets - funds in the bank’s cash desks on correspondent accounts, etc. The bank has primary obligations for funds raised on demand from banks, legal entities and individuals, as well as for resources whose repayment deadlines have already arrived.

Current liquidity characterizes the bank’s readiness to fulfill its obligations not only at the current moment, but also for the near future - up to one month.
Short-term liquidity characterizes the degree of balance of the bank's assets and liabilities in amounts and terms within one year. When calculating this standard, not only is the timing of the return of assets compared with the timing of the fulfillment of obligations, but also an assessment is made of demand assets taking into account the percentage of their liquidity and demand liabilities - taking into account the risk of their simultaneous withdrawal.
The ratio of highly liquid and total assets determines the limits within which the bank is able to provide itself with a level of profitability with the proper level of liquidity. The minimum acceptable value of this indicator recommended by the National Bank is no less than 10%, but its significant excess should not be assessed positively, since it may be the result of an unjustified overestimation of the share of highly liquid assets to the detriment of profitability.
Along with the concept of liquidity, there is the concept of bank solvency. It is necessary to distinguish them. The solvency of a bank is somewhat broader, it is the bank’s ability to fulfill its obligations in due time and in full not only to creditors and depositors, but also to shareholders, the central bank, the state represented by financial authorities, that is, to make payments on time and in full (including to the budget and various extra-budgetary funds, insurance organizations), uninterruptedly issue money to clients, repay loans to other banks, provide dividends on shares and shares, pay wages to their employees, etc. Bank liquidity acts as a necessary and obligatory condition for its solvency. However, the possibility of making all of the above payments depends on the bank’s availability of not only liquid and quickly realizable assets, but also its own funds. A bank whose assets exceed its liabilities is considered solvent; therefore, the bank's solvency is decisively influenced by its own capital. The solvency of a bank can be considered as the adequacy of the asset structure to the value of the bank's equity capital.
In global banking practice, capital adequacy standards (ratios) are used to assess the solvency of banks. The calculation of these indicators is based on a comparison of the bank’s own capital with the company’s
assets and off-balance sheet liabilities of the bank, “weighted” taking into account the degree of their risk. Thus, the economic meaning of the capital adequacy standard is to determine the bank’s ability to cover investments in illiquid and high-risk assets with its own capital.
The system of economic standards established for commercial banks is aimed at maintaining the liquidity and reliability of individual banks, but at the same time allows for the safe and liquid functioning of the banking system as a whole.

The resources of commercial banks, or banking resources, are the totality of all funds available to banks and used to carry out active operations.

According to the method of formation, the resources of a commercial bank are divided into own and attracted (obligations to clients and credit institutions) funds.

Own funds - funds received from the shareholders (participants) of the bank during its creation and formed in the process of its activities, which are at the disposal of the bank without a time limit

Raised funds are client funds received for a certain period or on demand. Borrowed funds include funds received from credit institutions.

The main source of resources of a commercial bank are attracted funds, amounting to about 70-80% of all banking resources, which, by the nature of their formation, can be classified into funds received from bank clients and borrowed from the banking sector. The structure of a bank's own funds depends on the sources it uses to generate these funds. The largest share in their structure is occupied by funds from various funds, created both by law (statutory, reserve) and on the initiative of the bank to ensure the growth of equity capital and, accordingly, expand the volume of its activities.

Bank's own funds.

Capital is the sum of the sources of the bank's own funds. Banks' own funds include:

Authorized capital,

Reserve Fund,

Special funds,

Insurance reserves,

Extra capital,

Earnings not distributed during the year.

The SC performs three functions: protective, operational and regulatory.

1. Protective function means protecting the economic interests of depositors and creditors, i.e. the possibility of paying them compensation in the event of losses or bankruptcy of the bank; continuation of the bank's activities regardless of the bank's losses.

2. The regulatory function is manifested in the fact that the size of the bank’s own funds determines the scale of its activities.

The ability of commercial banks to expand active operations is determined by the size of their insurance company.

3. The operational function (secondary, in contrast to non-financial organizations) of the insurance company is that it is a source of investment in its own tangible assets, a source of development of the bank’s material base.

In global banking practice, all attracted resources according to the method of their accumulation are grouped as follows:

1) deposits;

2) non-deposit raised funds.

The main part of the attracted resources of commercial banks consists of deposits - funds deposited in the bank by clients - individuals and legal entities and used by them in accordance with the account regime and banking legislation.

The bank receives non-deposit raised funds in the form of loans or by selling its own debt obligations on the money market.

Formation of liabilities is the basic task of any commercial bank. To solve this problem, banks carry out passive operations.

Passive operations of a bank are a set of operations (methods, techniques, methods) through which the bank’s resources are formed. As a result of such operations, there is an increase in funds held in passive accounts.

There are four forms of passive operations of commercial banks:

1) contributions to the authorized capital of the bank (sale of shares or shares to their first owners);

2) making a profit by the bank, as well as the formation or increase of funds formed by the bank in the course of its activities;

3) deposit operations (receiving resources from bank clients);

4) non-deposit operations (receiving resources from the central bank and in the money markets).

Passive operations allow banks to attract funds already in circulation. New resources are created by the banking system as a result of active credit operations. Using forms 1 and 2 of passive operations, the first large group of credit resources is formed - own resources. Forms 3 and 4 of passive operations form the second large group of resources - attracted (borrowed) resources.

Commercial banks, like other economic entities, must have a certain amount of funds to ensure their commercial and economic activities, i.e. resources. In modern conditions of economic development, the problem of resource formation is of paramount importance. This is explained by the fact that, firstly, the national fund of banking resources has significantly narrowed, and the scope of its functioning is concentrated in the first link of the banking system - the Central Bank of the Russian Federation. Secondly, the formation of enterprises and organizations with different forms of ownership means the emergence of new owners of temporarily free funds, which contributes to the creation of a market for credit resources that is organically included in the cash system.

In addition, the scale of activity of banks, determined by the object of its active operations, depends on the total amount of resources they have, and especially on the amount of attracted resources. This situation intensifies the competition between banks to attract resources.

The resources of commercial banks, or “banking resources,” are the totality of their own and borrowed funds at their disposal and used to carry out active operations.

According to the method of formation, all resources of a commercial bank are divided into own and borrowed (raised). The main source of resources of commercial banks are borrowed funds, amounting to about 88% of all banking resources. The structure of attracted resources of commercial banks in Russia is characterized by a high proportion of funds stored in current and other accounts, constituting demand deposits. The share of this category of resources is about 65%. The structure of banking resources for individual commercial banks is very diverse, which is explained by its individual characteristics. Raised funds come from clients, the bank acts as a borrower: 1) deposit and savings operations;

2) interbank loan;

3) loans from the Central Bank of the Russian Federation;

4) issue of bonds.

The bank's own funds should be understood as various funds created by the bank to ensure its financial stability, commercial and economic activities, as well as the profit received based on the results of the current and previous years.

Own funds:

1) authorized capital;

2) reserve fund and other funds;

3) retained earnings;

4) additional capital;

5) insurance reserves.

Authorized capital creates the economic basis for existence and is a prerequisite for the formation of a bank as a legal entity. Its value is regulated by the legislative acts of central banks and, moreover, is the subject of an agreement of the European Economic Community.

The reserve fund is created with the aim of absorbing possible losses arising in the activities of the bank and ensuring the stability of its functioning. The amount of the reserve fund is established by law as a percentage of the actually created authorized capital.

The theory of banking distinguishes between the concepts of “own funds” and “equity capital”. The concept of “own funds” is the most general and includes all liabilities generated in the process of the bank’s internal activities. The bank's equity capital is a value determined by calculation.

SC = Fixed capital + Additional capital

Fixed capital = Authorized capital + Share premium + Free deductions + Part of profits, funds, reserve for transactions with securities – Intangible assets – Own repurchased shares – Uncovered losses