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Federal Agency for Railway Transport

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education

"Ural State University of Transport"

(Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education, UrGUPS)

Department of World Economy and Logistics

TEST

in the discipline "History of Economic Doctrines"

on the topic “Economic thought of Ancient Greece”

Checked Completed

teacher: student:

candidate of historical sciences, associate professor gr. MT-174

Sukhina L.V. Vasich V.A

Ekaterinburg - 2015

WITHpossession

Introduction

1. Economic views of Ancient Greek thinkers

1.1 Xenophon

1.2 Plato

1.3 Aristotle

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

The economic ideas of the thinkers of Ancient Greece reflected the problems of the period of genesis, heyday and crisis of the era of slavery. They are characterized by originality and depth, an attempt to create a doctrine of organization, management of the slave economy and the state.

In the development of economic thought in Ancient Greece, with a certain degree of convention, three stages can be distinguished:

The first stage is associated with the economic ideas of thinkers of the period of early slavery (X-VI centuries BC). Which reflected the transitional nature of social relations, the origin and development of slavery within the framework of the communal system.

The second stage, associated with the heyday of ancient Greek society and the widespread spread of slavery in the 7th-6th centuries. BC, the completion of the formation of the policy system, the rejection of tribal traditions and the creation of conditions for the development of commodity-money relations, trade, etc. An important role in the development of economic ideas of this period was played by the activities of the famous Athenian reformers Solena (638-559 BC), Pisistratus (546-527 BC) and Pericles (490-429 BC). .e.), works of ancient Greek thinkers Democritus, Socrates, Protagoras, etc.

The third stage, associated with the period of crisis of the polis system and the aggravation of the contradictions of the slave society (V-IV centuries BC), was reflected in the works of outstanding ancient Greek thinkers Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle. In the works of these philosophers, the economic thought of the ancient world reached its highest development and depth of theoretical understanding of economic phenomena and processes .

In this test, I was interested in the third stage of the development of economic thought in Ancient Greece, and I would like to tell you about such thinkers as Plato, Aristotle and Xenophon. Tell you about the lives of these people and their contribution to the development of economic thought in Ancient Greece.

Objectives of this test:

indicate the features of the development of economic thought in Ancient Greece;

analyze the significance of the economic thought of Ancient Greece.

1. Economic views of Ancient Greek thinkers

The greatest role in the history of economic teachings of Ancient Greece was played by the works of famous thinkers Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle.

1.1 Xenophon

Xenophon was born in Athens (430-355 BC). He came from a wealthy family and was a student of the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates. The philosopher spent the first years of his public activity on military campaigns and received estates from the Spartans for military services.

Xenophon outlined his economic thoughts in his work “Domostroy,” which was prepared as a guide for running a slave-owning economy. He characterized home economics as the science of managing and enriching the economy. He considered agriculture to be the main branch of the slave economy, which he qualified as the most worthy type of occupation. He considered the main goal of economic activity to be the production of useful things. The thinker had a negative attitude towards crafts and trade and considered them an occupation suitable only for slaves. But at the same time, in the interests of the slave-owning economy, he considered commodity-money relations acceptable.

“Domostroy” contained numerous advice to slave owners in the field of economic activity. Xenophon gave advice on how best to organize slaves. He expressed disdain for manual labor, classifying it as an occupation fit only for slaves who must be treated like animals. This work enjoyed enormous success in Ancient Greece, was translated into Latin and gained fame in Ancient Rome.

Xenophon was one of the first thinkers of antiquity to pay considerable attention to the problems of division of labor, considering it as a natural phenomenon, as an important condition for increasing the production of use values. Xenophon was the first to draw attention to the relationship between the development of the division of labor and the market.

In his opinion, the division of professions depended on the volume of the market. He recognized money, firstly: as a means of circulation, and secondly: as a concentrated formula of wealth. At the same time, he condemned them as commercial and usurious capital. Xenophon came close to understanding the dual purpose of things: the use value of things, the exchange value of things.

But being an ideologist of natural economy, he first of all considered a thing from the point of view of its consumer value. Based on this, the value of a thing was placed depending on its usefulness, and the price was explained by moving supply and demand.

Xenophon condemned the political and economic system of Athens, admiring the order of agrarian Sparta and the laws of Lycurgus. He argued that the way out of the economic difficulties that Athens was experiencing was to improve the management of the slave economy, attract foreigners to the country and collect taxes from them, expand the production of silver and the slave trade.

According to Xenophon's definition, oikonomia (from the ancient Greek "oikos" - house, household, "nomos" - rule, law) is the science of organizing and enriching a slave economy. The philosopher carried out the analysis from the standpoint of natural economy, identifying the latter with the ownership of property, things useful to humans: “Oikonomia is the name of science... with the help of which people can enrich the economy, and the economy, in accordance with our definition, is all property without exception. ..".

In his works Xenophon:

1. Noted the naturalness of the division of labor into physical and mental.

2. He qualified physical labor as a disgusting occupation, suitable only for slaves, arguing that free Elins should engage in philosophy, lawmaking and economic management. Seeing slavery as a natural and legitimate phenomenon, the thinker called for treating slaves as animals, tools of labor. At the same time, Xenophon believed that it was possible to increase the productivity of slave labor not only through punishment, but also through the use of material and moral incentives for slaves so that they “always willingly continue to remain slaves.”

3. Defended natural economy, qualifying agriculture as the most important sector of the economy and a source of well-being of the people. The thinker interpreted agriculture as “the mother and nurse of all arts,” a worthy type of occupation that trains citizens physically, pushes them onto the path of mutual assistance, and teaches justice, since it gives more to those who work conscientiously. “When agriculture flourishes,” wrote Xenophon, “other arts also flourish. If agriculture declines, then all other branches of industrial activity on the sea and on land perish along with it.”

4. He was a supporter of rational farming, arguing that the only way to get rich is to “live so that there remains a surplus,” which ensures the profitability of subsistence farming. According to the ancient Greek philosopher, a good owner should keep supplies for a whole year, grind grain in hand mills, bake bread at home, make clothes, etc.

5. He disdained the craft, which he considered unworthy of free people. At the same time, Xenophon did not condemn the organization of craft workshops based on slave labor, seeing in them a source of enrichment for slave owners.

6. Recognized money as a necessary means of circulation and a concentrated form of wealth. However, he condemned their treatment as commercial and usurious capital. The thinker considered trade an occupation unworthy of a free Greek. At the same time, he approved of the grain trade carried out by landed aristocrats and small-scale trade in agricultural services.

7. The first of the ancient Greek thinkers drew attention to the importance of the division of labor for improving the quality of products and increasing the production of consumer goods. Arguing that specialization leads to improved skills in artisans, he noted that he who "spends time in such limited work is able to do it as well as possible."

8. Discovered the interdependence of the development of the division of labor and the market, made the first attempt to study pricing processes. The thinker depends on price fluctuations from changes in the supply of goods.

9. He was the first in economics to draw attention to two characteristics of a product - consumable value and exchange value. Linking value with the usefulness of material and intangible goods (“Value is something from which one can benefit”), Xenophon at the same time interpreted the value of a good for the owner as the ability to exchange for another good (“For one who does not know how to use a flute, if he sells it, it is valuable; if he does not sell it, but only possesses it, it is not valuable."

10. One of the greatest thinkers of the ancient era was the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (427-347 BC). Plato's economic ideas were clearly reflected in his works "The State" and "Laws", dedicated to the problems of overcoming the crisis in which ancient society found itself in the 5th - 4th centuries. BC, and long-term stabilization of the slave system based on the “ideal state” model.

11. The socio-economic concept of Plato’s “ideal state” acquired concentrated expression in the work “The State”. The output in this concept is the idea of ​​justice - the ideal charity that unites and balances wisdom, courage and restraint.

According to the philosopher:

wisdom is the ability to give correct advice not only in private, but also in public affairs. There are very few people who have such a natural gift. They are called upon to govern the state;

Courage is the ability to remain brave in the face of mortal danger. People who have such a gift must be warriors. They are called upon to defend the state;

restraint is the ability to obey laws. Not only the wise and courageous are capable of this, but also many other people worthy of being free citizens: peasants, artisans, merchants.

Plato considered a fair system in which everyone does only one thing, based on their natural abilities. Thus, the basis of the thinker’s ideal state is the division of labor.

According to Plato, society has a huge number of diverse needs, the satisfaction of which, even for an individual person, requires the use of many types of labor. The thinker was convinced that the contradictions between the limited individual capabilities of people and their unlimited needs are resolved as a result of the formation of the state. “The state arises from human needs,” wrote Plato, “no one is able to satisfy all his needs himself... a variety of needs gathers people into society for the purpose of mutual assistance, and we call this society a state.”

1.2 Plato

Economic ideas occupied a significant place in the writings of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (427-347 BC). His real name is Aristocles. The family was not rich, although noble. Plato received the usual education for noble Athenians: gymnastics, grammar, music, mathematics.

The founder of the world's first Academy, which existed for almost a thousand years, a thinker whose image has become a symbol and legend. Plato had a large number of students, the most prominent of them being the famous ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. Some ideas of Plato's "ideal state" model were implemented by his students, six of whom became rulers - tyrants of the cities of Ancient Greece. According to many thinkers, through the Middle Ages these ideas reached Hegel, and subsequently - the ideologists of communism and Nazism. This is why Plato is sometimes called one of the first ideologists of totalitarianism.

Plato viewed the state as a community of people generated by nature itself, for the first time expressing the idea of ​​the inevitability of dividing the state into two parts: rich and poor.

Plato paid great attention to the problem of division of labor, considering it as a natural phenomenon. He interpreted the division into free and slave as a state given by nature itself. Slaves were seen as the main productive force, and their exploitation as a means of enriching slave owners. Only Greeks could be free citizens, barbarians (foreigners) should be slaves. He considered slaves as the main productive force, and their exploitation as a means of enriching the slave owner.

He considered agriculture to be the main branch of the economy, but at the same time he also had a positive attitude towards crafts. He had a negative attitude towards trade, especially large trade. In his opinion, trade should be carried out mainly by foreigners, slaves. At the same time, in the interests of the slave-owning economy, he allowed small trade, which should serve the interests of the division of labor.

In his project of an ideal state, free Greeks were divided into three classes:

1) philosophers called upon to govern the state;

2) warriors;

3) landowners, artisans and small traders. Slaves were not included in any of these classes.

Each state has rights and responsibilities that are strictly regulated by the state. Even within states, activities are assigned according to natural abilities, given that everyone can only engage in one type of activity. Thus, the state assigns a certain duty to each member of society and monitors its implementation.

Slaves are not considered citizens and are not included in any of these classes. Based on the presence of natural inequality of people, the thinker viewed slavery as an eternal and unchangeable phenomenon, qualifying slaves as living instruments of labor, the main productive force of society;

The upper classes, called upon to govern the state, are not burdened by property and physical labor.

Rulers and warriors, according to Plato, should not have private property or families, so as not to envy, compete and not be distracted from daily concerns about the public good.

In this regard, artisans, farmers and traders have the right to private property as an incentive for highly productive labor. According to Plato, it is precisely such a social system that will help eliminate disputes and conflicts in society and promote general well-being.

This is the essence of the so-called "Platonic communism", which is sometimes called "aristocratic communism", the first social utopia in the history of mankind.

The basis of the economic structure is subsistence farming, primarily agriculture as the leading sector of the country's economy. Plato defined craft as a talent of foreigners, not worth the efforts of the native inhabitants of the state. At the same time, the thinker noted that the work of artisans, like all other types of economic activity, is regulated by the state and is subject to established rules, since the rapid development of crafts to the detriment of agriculture can lead to the death of the state;

Along with crafts, trade developed, the emergence of which the thinker associated with the development of the division of labor and the need for exchange. Noting the usefulness of small trade, Plato called the benefactor the one who leads to proportionality, comparability, similarity of various incomparable consumer goods. Assuming the existence of small trade, the ancient Greek philosopher even designed its “ideal” organization, which was reminiscent of the organization of medieval merchant guilds with their numerous restrictions and strict regulations. At the same time, Plato did not consider trade (like craft) an activity worthy of the efforts of free citizens of an ideal state, leaving this activity to the barbarians. ideal slave state Aristotle

Pointing to the genius of Plato's idea of ​​equalizing various consumer values ​​in the process of exchange, it should be noted that he saw the reason for this in the existence of the circulation of money. The philosopher recognized the use of money as a measure of value and a means of circulation, but he had an extremely negative attitude towards money as a means of accumulation, opposing usury and the sale of goods on credit.

It should be noted that Plato was the first of the ancient thinkers to raise the question of the possibility of state regulation of prices. He noted that under certain conditions of place and time, goods should be sold at one specific price. At the same time, Plato considered price rationing as an important tool for limiting the income of merchants.

Another project of an ideal state, which more accurately reflected the economic problems of Ancient Greece during the slave crisis, was developed by Plato in his old age in his work “Laws”. Proclaiming, as in the previous project, natural farming and the agrarian economy, state ownership and slavery as the basis of the state, the ancient Greek thinker argued that the organization of new cities should include:

1. distance from the sea coast and from the temptations of trade, prohibition of usury and the sale of goods on credit;

2. supreme state ownership of land;

3. the invariability of the number and size of land plots that are provided by the state for the use of individual citizens and are inherited by one of the children. At the same time, the cost of one plot is the “poverty line”. The property of any citizen should not exceed the value of four plots;

4. dividing the population into four categories depending on their financial situation;

5. appointment to positions and collection of taxes according to property qualifications;

6. state regulation of production and distribution, crafts and trade, strict regulation of the range of goods and the establishment of boundaries for price fluctuations in order to avoid excessive luxury and poverty.

Plato spent the last years of his life in Athens. Numerous of his philosophical works, written in the form of dialogues and letters, have reached us. In Syracuse, Plato tried to put into practice his project of an ideal state, but these attempts ended in failure.

The thinker died, leaving his descendants with an enduring instruction: “The human race will not get rid of evil until true and correctly thinking philosophers occupy government positions or those in states, by some divine will, become true philosophers.”

1.3 Aristotle

The greatest contribution to the development of economic thought in Ancient Greece was made by the ancient thinker Aristotle (384-322 BC). He went down in history as a student of Plato and teacher of the commander - Alexander the Great.

If we do not remember Aristotle, then almost until modern times nothing significant will be added to what was done by this idealist (Plato) in the economic sphere. And this is all the more surprising since his entire philosophy is imbued with a negative attitude not only towards economic phenomena and processes, but also to those human instincts that cause and give impetus to the existence of these phenomena.

It should be noted that Aristotle did not create a complete economic doctrine, but his very attempt to penetrate into the essence of economic phenomena and reveal their patterns based on the values ​​of traditional society was brilliant. The thinker built his conclusions based on a scrupulous analysis of the practice of economic and political life of Ancient Greece. It is known, for example, that when creating “Politics”, he and a group of students collected and processed materials about the political structure and laws of 158 Hellenic and barbarian states and policies.

In his works the scientist:

He criticized Plato's "ideal state" project and proposed his theory of the slave state. The solution to his theoretical construction was the concept of the “golden mean,” according to which any charity is an average between opposite shortcomings. Consequently, showing the essence of the state in the pursuit of general welfare, Aristotle spoke out against excessive wealth and extreme poverty, basing the average state: “In In every state we meet three classes: the very wealthy, the extremely poor, and the third, standing in the middle between both. Since it is generally accepted that moderation and the middle are the best between two extremes, then, obviously, average wealth is the best of all goods.

The thinker's ideal is a natural slave-owning economy with small trade, without merchants and moneylenders. Unlike Plato, he divided all free Greeks into 5 classes:

1) Agricultural

2) Craftsmen

3) Trading

4) Hired workers

5) Military

Slaves formed a separate group, not included in the civil community. Aristotle associated slavery with the natural division of labor, believing that slaves by nature are such and are only capable of physical labor. Slaves were considered to be the property of slave owners.

“Searching for truth is both easy and difficult, because it is obvious that no one is able to comprehend it completely, nor to completely notice it, but everyone adds a little to our knowledge of nature, and from the totality of all the facts a majestic picture is made,” these Aristotle's words are engraved on the building of the National Academy of Sciences in Washington.

Thus, Aristotle viewed slavery as a natural phenomenon, based on the assumption that the lot of slaves was physical work aimed at satisfying the needs of slave owners. The thinker considered the destiny of free citizens to be mental work, pursuits of philosophy and government affairs. In his opinion, philosophers and politicians should be the most respected and privileged classes in the state.

Idealizing the slave state and based on the immutability of the “laws of nature,” he advocated the preservation of the existing stratification of society. Unlike Plato, he was an unconditional supporter of private property. The thinker believed that it would be unfair if the poor, based on the fact that they represent the majority, began to divide the property of the rich among themselves."

Aristotle's outstanding merit was that he was the first to try to penetrate into the essence of economic phenomena and reveal their patterns. He laid the foundation for economic analysis. He defended the natural-economic nature of the organization of social life, which was clearly manifested in the original concept of economics and chrematistics he put forward.

Aristotle viewed economic phenomena from the point of view of greatest benefit. And based on this, everything that corresponded to the interests of strengthening the economy was accepted as natural and fair. In the interests of the slave-owning economy, he allowed barter trade, and everything that did not contribute to the development of the natural slave-owning economy was considered unnatural and called chrematistics.

Aristotle had brilliant insights about exchange and exchange value.

“Exchange cannot take place without commensurability. In exchange, all crafts and arts are equated, and the use values ​​participating in it have something in common.”

Aristotle's life ended tragically. After the death of A. Macedonian, an anti-Macedonian uprising took place in Athens. Aristotle, who always advocated ties with Macedonia, was accused of “desecrating the gods,” but he did not wait for trial and left for the island of Euboea, where he died.

Conclusion

The economic views of the thinkers of Ancient Greece historically became the starting point for the formation of economic science and had a huge influence on the further development of scientific knowledge. A general characteristic of the economic ideas of antiquity is the attitude towards slavery as a natural, normal phenomenon. The idea of ​​the division of labor as the basis of the economic and political life of society is also common.

The economic ideas of the outstanding ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, the problems that he first drew attention to, became central to many subsequent generations of researchers in the economic field.

The treatment of the problem of slavery occupied a central place in both the works of Plato and the works of Aristotle. Economic thought was also greatly influenced by the development of cities and the associated growth of crafts and trade. The thinkers of Ancient Greece understood the importance of the division of labor. During the heyday of economic thought, its representatives tried to analyze commodity-money relations, terms of exchange, and money. They not only gave advice on how to run a household, but also tried to theoretically comprehend economic processes.

In further historical development, the teachings of Aristotle, Xenophon and Plato became the sources of numerous schools and trends.

Thus, the economic thought of Ancient Greece, although it did not form into an independent branch of knowledge, posed many important problems and thereby laid the foundation for the further development of economic science.

WITHsqueakusedliterature

1. Zoloeva L. A., Poryaz A. G. World culture: Ancient Greece. Ancient Rome. - M.: Olma-press, 2000. - 324 p.

2. Cameron R. A brief economic history of the world from the Paleolithic to the present day. - M.: Rossman, 2001. - 298 p.

3. Polyak G.B., A.N. Markova. - M.: Unity. History of the world economy: Textbook /, 2000. - 386 p.

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Introduction

About five thousand years ago, in the south of the Balkan Peninsula and its surrounding islands in the eastern Mediterranean, a culture was born that was destined to play the greatest role in human history - the culture of the ancient Greeks (Hellenes). Greece never aspired to world domination, its inhabitants took part in only a few historical battles, and few of the Greek commanders managed to gain great glory. For more than the last two millennia, this people was under the rule of foreign conquerors, and only a century and a half ago Greece regained independence and appeared on the map as an independent state.

It would seem that Greece in the past was no different from its neighbors - neither in its special political role, nor in any exceptional natural conditions. However, it was here that two and a half millennia ago culture reached such a flourishing, which for many centuries turned out to be inaccessible to other later states.

This country played a special role on the political and economic map of that time. Its internal economic system and external economic relations deserve detailed study and may be interesting from the point of view of modern economics.

The main purpose of this essay is to consider the models of economic development of Ancient Greece.

Objectives of this essay:

· characterize the state and political structure of Ancient Greece;

· indicate the features of the development of economic thought in Ancient Greece;

· analyze the significance of the economic thought of Ancient Greece.

Economic views of ancient Greek thinkers

The greatest role in the history of economic teachings of Ancient Greece was played by the works of famous thinkers Xenophon, Plato and Aristotle.

The economic views of Xenophon (430-355 BC) - a student of the famous ancient Greek philosopher Socrates - are set out in the work “Domostroy”, prepared as a guide for running a slave economy. He characterized home economics as the science of managing and enriching the economy. Xenophon considered agriculture to be the main branch of the slave economy, which he qualified as the most worthy type of occupation. He saw the main goal of economic activity in ensuring the production of useful things. Xenophon had a negative attitude towards crafts and trade; he considered them an occupation suitable only for slaves. At the same time, in the interests of the slave-owning economy, Xenophon allowed the use of commodity-money relations.

“Domostroy” contained numerous advice to slave owners in the field of economic activity. Their lot was to manage the economy and exploit slaves. Xenophon expressed contempt for physical labor, classifying it as an occupation suitable only for slaves who must be treated like animals.

Xenophon became one of the first among the thinkers of antiquity who paid great attention to the issues of division of labor, considering it as a natural phenomenon, as an important condition for increasing the production of use values. Xenophon was the first to point out the relationship between the development of the division of labor and the market.

Economic ideas occupied a significant place in the writings of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (427-347 BC). His most famous work is “Politics or the State.” Plato's socio-economic concept received concentrated expression in the project of an ideal state. Plato viewed the state as a community of people generated by nature itself, for the first time expressing the idea of ​​the inevitability of dividing the state into two parts: rich and poor.

Plato paid great attention to the problem of division of labor, considering it as a natural phenomenon. His concept substantiated the innate inequality of people. He interpreted the division into free and slave as a state given by nature itself. Slaves were seen as the main productive force, and their exploitation as a means of enriching slave owners. Only Greeks could be free citizens.

Plato considered agriculture to be the main branch of the economy, but he also approved of crafts. He saw the economic basis of the state in a natural economy based on the exploitation of slaves. He allowed small trade, which was designed to serve the division of labor. However, Plato had a very negative attitude towards trading profits. In his opinion, trade should be carried out mainly by foreigners, slaves. In Plato's ideal state, free people were divided into three classes: 1) philosophers, called upon to govern the state; 2) warriors; 3) landowners, artisans and small traders. Slaves were not included in any of these classes.

The greatest contribution to the development of economic thought in Ancient Greece was made by the ancient thinker Aristotle (384-322 BC). Being a student of Plato, he did not share Platonic idealism. Showing fluctuations between materialism and idealism, he moved towards materialism. His political views are expressed in his work “Politics” and other works. He is an opponent of the aristocratic system, oligarchic power, and a supporter of slave-owning democracy. Aristotle justified the division of people into slaves and free, perceiving it as natural. In his opinion, freedom was the destiny of only the Hellenes. As for foreigners (barbarians), by their nature they could only be slaves. He divided the citizens of Greece into five groups (classes): 1) agricultural class, 2) artisan class, 3) trading class, 4) hired workers, 5) military. Slaves formed a separate group, not included in the civil community. Aristotle associated slavery with the natural division of labor, believing that slaves by nature are such and are only capable of physical labor. The slave was equated with other things that belonged to free people and was included in their property.

Aristotle's outstanding merit in the development of economic thought is his attempt to penetrate into the essence of economic phenomena and reveal their patterns. He laid the foundation for economic analysis, which was manifested in the approach to defining the subject of economic science, in the study of exchange, forms of value, etc.

Aristotle viewed economic phenomena from the point of view of greatest benefit. Everything that corresponded to the interests of strengthening the economy was accepted as natural and fair. Aristotle attributed natural phenomena to economics, which revealed the sources of “true wealth”, consisting of use values. Economics provided the study of ways to strengthen subsistence farming; possibilities for expanding the production of consumer values. This corresponded to the maintenance of moderate amounts of wealth, a supporter of which was Aristotle, who rejected excessive accumulation of money, enrichment through speculative trade, usury, etc. He allowed barter trade and classified it as economics.

It is interesting how Aristotle viewed the form of value. The monetary form of the commodity was accepted as a development of the simple form of value. Although he could not scientifically explain the origin and essence of money, what is important is that he connected it with the development of exchange and laid the foundation for considering the functions of money as a measure of value and a means of circulation.

2. Stages of economic development and the role of the state in the economy of Ancient Greece

2.1. Ancient Greece in the XI-VI centuries. BC.

If we analyze this period of time, we can say the following. It covers two stages of the history of Ancient Greece: the so-called dark ages (XI-IX centuries BC) and the archaic period (VIII-VI centuries BC). The Dark Ages are often called the Homeric period because, along with archaeological evidence, the main sources for studying this time are the poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey", attributed to Homer.

Usually XI-IX centuries. BC e. is considered an intermediate stage, at which, on the one hand, in comparison with Achaean Greece, the level of development decreases, but, on the other hand, with the beginning of the production of iron tools, the prerequisites are created for the further flourishing of the Greek states.

The Archaic period is characterized by two main processes that had a decisive influence on the development of Greek civilization:

The Great Colonization - the development by the Greeks of the coasts of the Mediterranean, Black, and Azov Seas;

Registration of a policy as a special type of community.

There are two main types of policies:

Agrarian - the absolute predominance of agriculture, weak development of crafts, trade, a large proportion of dependent workers, as a rule, with an oligarchic structure;

Trade and craft - with a large share of trade and crafts, commodity-money relations, the introduction of slavery into the means of production, and a democratic structure.

In the XI-IX centuries. BC. In the Greek economy, the natural type of economy dominated; crafts were not separated from agriculture. There was some improvement in tools, in particular, a plow with a metal coulter appeared. Livestock also played an important role in agriculture, with livestock considered one of the main forms of wealth. In the craft of the XI-IX centuries. BC e. there was some differentiation, weaving, metallurgy, and ceramics were especially developed, but production was focused only on meeting the basic needs of people. In this regard, trade developed very slowly and was mainly of an exchange nature.

In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. The economic situation in Ancient Greece changed significantly. During this period, crafts separated from agriculture, which remained the leading sector of the economy. The weak development of agricultural production at the previous stage and the inability to provide food for the growing population of the policies became one of the main reasons for Greek colonization. The most important function of the colonies located in the Black Sea basin was to supply the metropolises with bread. The main attention is paid to crops, the cultivation of which is more consistent with the natural conditions of Greece: grapes, olives, all kinds of vegetable and garden crops; As a result, agriculture is becoming increasingly market-oriented.

The economic life of people was first comprehended in Ancient Greece. The origins of material and economic ideas were Plato and Aristotle. Xenophon. These thinkers looked at economic processes from a theoretical point of view. They provided explanations for commodity-money relations, money itself, and the processes of exchanging it for goods. Microeconomics came to the fore in the research of these scientists. They dealt with the problems of developing private farming and small industries.

The ideas of Plato and Aristotle differ significantly from the thoughts of antiquity, during which the enrichment of the state as a whole was never considered, but only of the individual. He was a consumer and “accumulator” of goods. European economic thought later developed on the works of Plato and other scientists.

Basic economic ideas of the Ancient Greeks

For the first time they understood and calculated that if there was a large harvest of fruits in a year, due to the excess, their value fell. People who sell crops go bankrupt and begin to engage in another type of trade. In another year, when, for example, there is little fruit, some traders enrich themselves by buying up a small harvest from farmers and raising the price significantly.

Ancient Greek thinkers analyzed the division of labor and identified connections between this process and the market itself, and examined the impact of the division of labor on trade turnover. Getting rich, according to Greek thinkers, is preserving surplus. If you subtract all expenses and leave net profit, spend part of it, the remainder is wealth. Scientists have linked this process to labor productivity.

The Greeks attributed 2 functions to money at once

1. Medium of exchange.
2. A means of storage.

The intellectual activity of the Greeks in the field of economics reached its peak in the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. At that time, a crisis arose in the poleis (city-states). To bring the economy out of this state, it was necessary to make fundamental decisions and change the direction of economic development. Scientists began researching the processes occurring in subsistence farming, analyzed slavery and began searching for an effective method of farming.

Xenophon defended the slave system and subsistence farming most strongly. He brought agriculture to the forefront, because thanks to cultivating the land and obtaining crops, the Greeks received everything they needed for nutrition and a full life. Xenophon published Domostroy, where his economic ideas were outlined. They boiled down to the following:

The division of labor, labor force and slavery is a natural process.

Craft drives people into darkness, but agriculture reveals the sun.

The simplest work is the most productive.

The larger the market, the more intense the division of labor.

Each product has benefits and has value in the eyes of the consumer.

Money cannot be wasted; it was invented to accumulate wealth.

Most of Xenophon's contemporaries, Aristotle and Plato, supported their teachings and even guided them in running their households.

As for Aristotle, he is considered almost the first economist. This figure considered issues of economic relations from various points of view: social, statistical and even sociological. When creating his works, Aristotle gathered his students and conducted research. He analyzed only the facts. For example, he studied the state structures of almost 160 ancient Greek city-states.

This scientist defined the class stratification of society. He said that physical labor is for the lower strata of the population, the fruits of mental labor are produced by aristocrats. They are also subject to military activities.

I searched and tried to create a model of an ideal state. He despised hoarding and believed that it was the basis of laziness and greed. He considered any surplus product as enemy machinations to destroy society and order in it.

He clearly divided the population into classes, connecting people with their activities. Even 2 ideal models appeared in his works. He imagined the rulers of his state as aristocrats and warriors. Philosophers - sensible people - will be able to control people, and will expand the boundaries of the state as conquerors. And no personal preferences. Warriors must be raised according to the Spartan system, under strict discipline and under camp conditions. They shouldn't have gotten rich. None of the upper classes (aristocrats and warriors) can be the owners of anything and make a profit from it. According to Plato, the public should provide for them financially.

The rest of the population - the third estate - is the mob and slaves. This class consists of artisans, farmers, cattle breeders, and merchants. Their main responsibility is the production of goods. The artisans and other members of the class must have a strong interest in their activities. That is why the third estate should receive the right to private property.

The second model of an ideal state supports the idea of ​​​​condemning usury, and condones agriculture as the basis of economic activity. Crafts and trade take a back seat. Here the upper class is given the right to property and disposes of it at its own discretion. Income from the land plot should ensure a comfortable life for the aristocrat. The earth is inherited.

According to Plato, it is necessary to strictly define the boundaries of poverty and wealth. The poorest person is the one who owns only one plot of land. The rich man had 4-5 plots. The super-rich need to be dispossessed and part of their property given to the poor. This is how Plato introduced the ideas of communism.

Industry, in the philosopher’s understanding, is a workshop industry. Traders should not inflate prices; this must be strictly monitored. There is no need to export products to other states and import other goods from there. According to Plato, the state is able to provide for itself without foreign trade.

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Kayaking on the rivers of Greece. People began to develop mountain rivers from ancient times. This was done not for fun, but out of dire necessity. Highlanders have always been distinguished by their independent character, love of freedom and severity. There was no question of submitting to force, becoming someone’s vassal, or carrying out someone else’s will. Proud, free, independent peoples preferred death to slavery. But for a mountaineer simply to die meant to give up his life ingloriously.

Rodini Park on the island of Rhodes.

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Rhodes. Rhodes fortress

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Plato. We find a negative attitude towards trade and the idealization of a rigid social structure reminiscent of the Indian one in the writings of one of the most influential thinkers, the greatest Greek philosopher Plato (c. 427-347 BC).

In his essays “The State” and “Laws,” Plato outlined a diagram of an ideal social order based on the idea of ​​justice. Plato interpreted justice as a harmonious combination in the state of three principles - deliberative, defensive and business. They correspond to the three principles of the human soul - reason, ardor (courage, rage) and lust, which should be consolidated in the specialization of three groups of free citizens: philosopher-rulers, warrior-guardians and the totality of those who, according to their natural inclinations, are engaged in various spheres of economic activity.

Justice is that everyone should improve in his own business without interfering with others. The ruling stratum, according to Plato, should be formed from guards, educated and physically trained, tested at three ages and convinced of the unity of their own and public benefit. The labor of slaves and the tax on free commoners were supposed to ensure the life of rulers and guards, for which, however, strict regulation was provided. To prevent the coveted principle from taking possession of philosophers and warriors, Plato recommended that they not only renounce private property and money, but eat together and own wives.

He condemned “love of money” and pleasures bought with money as unworthy of a truly free person, slavish and bestial in nature.

Xenophon. The politician and writer Xenophon (c. 430-355 BC), like Plato, devoted his activities to the search for a political system where virtue would become a real force. Xenophon presented his ideas in different genres - from the edifying, with obvious artistic fiction, history of the Iranian (Persian) king Cyrus Achaemenides as an exemplary ruler (“Kyropedia”) to specific recommendations for increasing contributions to the treasury of the Athenian polis (“On Revenues”).

The title of Xenophon’s work “Oikonomia” (from the words “oikos” - “household” and “nomos” - “law”) can also be translated as “Domostroy”.

Xenophon advocated for prudent management, which would ensure the strengthening of the fatherland and the bodily strength necessary to own weapons, and profit. It is noteworthy that if in Domostroy he associated such management exclusively with agriculture within the framework of individual land ownership, then in his other works he paid close attention to crafts and trade. In the Cyropaedia, Xenophon emphasized the much higher quality of products in large cities compared to small towns due to the increased division of labor provided by a large number of orders. Where each worker finds many buyers, it is enough for him to know one craft to feed himself, and often there is not even a need to master the craft as a whole: one can make only men's shoes, and another only women's, one can do exclusively cutting, and another can only tailoring. “It is inevitable that he who does the simplest work does it best.” Thus, the division of labor contributes to its productivity, but it is determined by the size of the market.

Elements of "macroeconomics". In his essay “On Income,” Xenophon substantiated such a direction as state entrepreneurship. He proposed that the Athenian state: 1) take the lead in new developments of silver deposits, since private mine owners do not risk doing this; 2) create a public fund from voluntary contributions of citizens and spend its funds on the construction and rental of cargo ships for trade transportation, equipment of hotels and commercial premises. As a result, to promote the expansion of trade turnover and, thereby, increase treasury revenues from foreign trade.

It can be summarized that Xenophon, based on political considerations, raised the question of rational management both at the micro level of the “oikos” and at the macro level of the polis.

Aristotle. Plato's student Aristotle Stagirites (384-322 BC), borrowing the concept of “oikonomia” (“economy”) from Xenophon, took the first step towards describing economic life in a system of interrelated abstract categories. Aristotle was the mentor of the great commander Alexander the Great.

Aristotle outlined his economic views in his works “Politics” and “Ethics”. He explored the motives for the economic activity of man as a social being (“political animal”), based on the philosophical idea of ​​virtue as “possession of the mean.” In giving and acquiring property, possession of the middle is generosity, and excess and lack are extravagance and stinginess. The virtuous middle is also “justice” - fairness in exchange and distribution.

Justice in Aristotle's interpretation is dual. On the one hand, it manifests itself in proportional remuneration to workers in accordance with labor costs, commensurate with the help of nomisma (coin). On the other hand, it involves meeting the needs of people in accordance with differences in social status. Thus, Aristotle provided the basis for contradictory judgments about the “cost” and “usefulness” of goods in the economic thought of subsequent centuries.

Characterizing the coin as the basis for comparing “everything that is involved in exchange,” Aristotle essentially meant three functions of money: 1) a unit of measurement; 2) medium of exchange; 3) a reserve of value - “a guarantee of the possibility of exchange in the future”, since the coin, more than other goods, “gravitates towards constancy”. Aristotle pointed out the artificial nature of the coin, in particular that “it exists not by nature, but by institution, and it is in our power to change it or put it out of use.” This remark was a prerequisite for a new concept introduced in the essay “Politics” - chrematistics (from the word “chremat” - “reserves”).

In this work, Aristotle described wealth as the totality of means necessary for life and useful for the family and the state. The household is the smallest, and the polis is the largest container of reserves of goods accumulated to ensure self-sufficiency and justice of human communities, cemented by relations of reciprocity. Chrematistics is the ability to provide oneself with supplies, but they can be natural - products necessary to maintain life and goodwill in the community, and artificial - in banknotes. Natural supplies have limits because they are limited by space availability and shelf life. On the contrary, in the “art of making a fortune” through monetary transactions, “there is never a limit to the achievement of the goal”; the desire to multiply money reaches infinity and leads away from the “good life.” This is artificial chrematism, the extreme expression of which is usury.

Aristotle believed that the desire to multiply money in trade “is justly reprehensible”; and the activity of issuing money loans at interest “with good reason causes hatred,” since this type of profit is unnatural, because money loses its purpose for which it was created - to serve the exchange of products - and begins to reproduce itself. It should be borne in mind that usury was, as a rule, carried out by less than full-fledged residents of the polis and freed slaves, therefore Aristotle’s hostility to this activity reflected the dualism of the sublime and the base, rational form and gross matter that permeated his entire philosophy; belief in the natural inequality of people and the predisposition of some to domination and others to slavery.

In the doctrine of chrematistics (which later interpreters completely identified with artificial chrematistics), Aristotle formulated a concept that still remains one of the main ones in economic science: monopoly (in Greek “mono” - “one”, “poleo” - “I sell”) . In terms of profit, it is especially beneficial both for individuals and for various states. Aristotle cited the story of the very first of the Greek philosophers - Thales of Miletus, who, based on his knowledge of astronomy, foreseeing a rich harvest of olives, cheaply contracted all the surrounding oil mills in the winter, and during the harvest began to farm them out for a high fee, collecting a lot of money.

Ancient Greece gave the world a wonderful galaxy of scientists in many fields of science - mathematics and geometry, astronomy and mechanics, history and philosophy. It is in the greatest ancient Greek philosophers that we find the first elements of theoretical analysis of economic relations in the history of science. However, everything that can be identified in their works as being related to economic research constitutes only a small, “extremely insignificant,” as J. Schumpeter emphasizes, part of the scientific heritage left to us by the ancient Greeks.

First of all, it must be said that the word “economy” itself came to us from Ancient Greece. "Economy" comes from the ancient Greek oikonomia (oikos - house, nomos- rule, law). Literally translated oikonomia means “the art of managing a house”, or “housekeeping”. This is the name of the work of the Greek philosopher Xenophon(c. 444-355 BC). In the Russian translation, this work was called “Domostroy”. In it, Xenophon examines reasonable rules for housekeeping. Other ancient Greek philosophers also put this meaning into the words “economy” and “economy”, and it remained so for a long period of time until the 16th-17th centuries, the beginning of the formation of the capitalist economic system and the transformation of market relations into dominant ones. It should, of course, be remembered that the very concept of household in those days included a much broader content than it does today. The household in Ancient Greece was, as a rule, a large subsistence economy, where many slaves worked and almost everything needed for life was produced.

In order to correctly understand the range of economic issues considered by Greek philosophers, it is necessary to briefly characterize what the Greek economy was like in the 5th-4th centuries. BC, i.e. determine the actual subject of analysis and the problems that worried the Greeks.

Unlike the countries of the Ancient East, slavery was the basis of the economy of Ancient Greece; slave labor was decisive in both handicraft and agricultural production. Slaves made up about a third of the total population. Wars of conquest produced the largest number of slaves, although over time the Greeks also began to fall into slavery. The basis of the ancient economic system were slave-owning communities, mainly in the form of city-policies, which were separate states. Polis were created on the basis of the ancient form of property, which acted as a combination of private and communal (later state) property. Increased production and regional specialization stimulated the development of trade. Greece was the most important center of world trade.

We can highlight several key economic problems that became the subject of study by ancient Greek philosophers: the attitude towards slavery and its moral justification, ways to increase the efficiency of the slave economy, the relationship between natural and commodity economies, fairness of exchange and price setting, the role of money in the economy.

The economic problems of Ancient Greece during the crisis of the slave system were reflected in the works of the outstanding philosopher Plato(427-348 BC). His attitude to the existing political and economic structure of society, and consequently, his system of socio-economic views, is clearly manifested in the project of the “ideal state” set out in the works “State” and “Laws”.

The slave-holding nature of the “ideal state” is not questioned by Plato, but slavery should be the lot of other peoples. He condemns those who owned slaves of Greek origin. Plato divides the free population into three classes: philosophers who govern the state, warriors and workers (demos) - farmers, artisans and merchants. The entire social structure is based on a strict division of labor, which ensures economic efficiency: a farmer cannot engage in a craft, and an artisan can only engage in one type of craft.

The basis of the economy should be subsistence farming within the slave-owning community, and Plato proposed banning the import of goods that were not needed and the export of material goods needed by the country. Plato had a negative attitude towards trade and usury, since enrichment distorts morals, and proposed making intermediary trade the business of only foreigners. To prevent contradictions between rich and poor from threatening the foundations of the “ideal state,” the two upper classes - philosophers and warriors - could not have private property or even touch gold and silver, and land had to be distributed evenly between farmers.

Thus, from the point of view of economic content, Plato’s “ideal state” is a natural economy strictly regulated by the state. In fact, it was a project to preserve and protect the Greek polis as a slave-owning community in conditions when this economic system entered a period of crisis.